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Chapter 41 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology • Anatomy The study, classification, and description of structures and organs of the body • Physiology Explains the processes and functions of the various structures and how they interrelate with one another Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 2 Anatomical Terminology • Terms that specifically locate a structure Anterior—to face forward Cranial—toward the head Caudal—toward the tail Superior—toward the head or above Inferior—lower, below another Medial—toward the midline Lateral—toward the side Proximal—nearest the trunk Distal—farthest from the trunk Superficial—nearer the body surface Deep—farther away from the body surface Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 3 Anatomical Terminology • Body planes Sagittal • Divides the body into right and left halves Coronal • Divides the body into front and back halves Transverse • Divides the body into caudal and cranial portions Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 4 Figure 41-2 (From Thibodeau, G.A., Patton, K.T. [2008]. Structure and function of the body. [13th ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.) Directions and planes of the body. Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 5 Anatomical Terminology • Body cavities Ventral cavity • Thoracic cavity • Heart and lungs • Abdominopelvic cavity • Abdominal o • Stomach, kidneys, liver, gallbladder, spleen, pancreas, and a large portion of the intestines Pelvic o Lower portion of the intestines, urinary bladder, and internal structures of the reproductive system Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 6 Anatomical Terminology • Body cavities (continued) Dorsal cavity • Cranial cavity • Brain • Spinal cavity • Spinal cord Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 7 Figure 41-3 (From Thibodeau, G.A., Patton, K.T. [2008]. Structure and function of the body. [13th ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.) Location and subdivisions of the dorsal and ventral body cavities as viewed from the front (anterior) and from the side (lateral). Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 8 Abdominal Regions • Nine abdominal regions Right hypochondriac region: liver, gallbladder Epigastric region: liver, stomach Left hypochondriac region: stomach, large intestine Right lumbar region: large, small intestine Umbilical region: transverse colon, small intestine Left lumbar region: small intestine, colon Right iliac (inguinal) region: cecum, small intestine Hypogastric region: small intestine, bladder, appendix Left iliac (inguinal) region: colon, small intestine Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 9 Figure 41-4 (From Thibodeau, G.A., Patton, K.T. [2008]. Structure and function of the body. [13th ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.) The nine regions of the abdominopelvic cavity. Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 10 Abdominopelvic Quadrants • Physicians and other health professionals frequently divide the abdomen into four quadrants to describe the site of pain or locate internal pathology Right upper quadrant: liver, gallbladder Left upper quadrant: spleen Right lower quadrant: appendix Left lower quadrant: colon Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 11 Figure 41-5 (From Thibodeau, G.A., Patton, K.T. [2008]. Structure and function of the body. [13th ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.) The abdomen divided into right and left upper quadrants and right and left lower quadrants. Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 12 Structural Levels of Organization • Organization is one of the most important characteristics of body structure. Chemical level • Atoms: smallest unit of matter • Molecules: two or more united atoms Cellular level: smallest living unit Tissue level: organized group of cells Organs: group of tissues System level: organized group of organs Organism (human being) Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 13 Structural Levels of Organization • Cell Structural parts • Plasma membrane • • Keeps cell whole and intact Selectively permeable • Cytoplasm • • Sticky, fluid-like substance (nutrients) between the plasma membrane and the nucleus Contains organelles o Tiny functioning structures o Nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, mitochondria, lysosomes, Golgi apparatus, centrioles Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 14 Figure 41-7 (From Herlihy, B., Maebius, N.K. [2007]. The human body in health and illness. [3rd ed.]. Philadelphia: Saunders.) A typical cell. Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 15 Structural Levels of Organization • Nucleus Largest organelle Responsible for cell reproduction and control of other organelles Surrounded by nuclear membrane Contains nucleoplasm: refined cytoplasm Two structures: • Nucleolus Critical in formation of protein • Chromatin granules Composed of protein and DNA Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 16 Structural Levels of Organization • Endoplasmic reticulum Smooth and rough; Functions as a miniature circulation system • Ribosomes Produce enzymes and proteins • Mitochondria Convert food to energy ATP • Lysosomes Contain enzymes that digest food and microbes • Golgi apparatus Packaging plant • Packages certain carbohydrate and protein compounds into globules, then releases them outside of the cell • Centrioles Aid in the formation of the spindle during mitosis • Necessary for cell reproduction Mosby items and derived items © 2011, organelles 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Paired, rodshaped Slide 17 Structural Levels of Organization • Protein synthesis DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) • Located in the nucleus • Chemical blueprint • Encodes the message for protein synthesis and sends it to RNA RNA (ribonucleic acid) • Located in the cytoplasm • Chemical messenger • Transports DNA message to ribosomes where the protein is produced Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 18 Structural Levels of Organization • Cell division Mitosis • Reproduction of cells • One cell divides to form two daughter cells • Chromosomes • • • • • Located in the nucleus Carry genes responsible for the organism’s traits Each body cell contains 46 chromosomes Each exists in pairs (one from the father and one from the mother) Four phases of mitosis • Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 19 Structural Levels of Organization • Mitosis Prophase: chromosomes form two strands (chromatids); centrioles form spindle fibers Metaphase: spindle fibers attach to chromatids Anaphase: cell division begins Telophase: two nuclei appear; two new cells developed Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 20 Structural Levels of Organization • Movement of materials across cell membranes Active transport • Movement of material across the membrane of a cell by means of a chemical activity that allows the cell to admit larger molecules than would otherwise be able to enter • Requires energy Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 21 Structural Levels of Organization • Types of active transport Phagocytosis—Movement of cells or other large particles into the cell by trapping them in a section of plasma membrane Pinocytosis—Movement of fluid and dissolved molecules into a cell by trapping them in a section of plasma membrane White blood cells trapping bacteria Cell trapping protein molecule Pump (calcium or sodium-potassium)—Movement of solute particles from an area of low concentration to an area of higher concentration by means of a carrier molecule Muscle cell action Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 22 Structural Levels of Organization • Passive transport Movement of small molecules across the membrane of a cell by diffusion No energy is required Types • Diffusion—Solid particles in a fluid move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration o Nerve cell impulse • Osmosis—The passage of water across a selectively permeable membrane, with water molecules going from the less concentrated solution to the more concentrated solution o Water imbalance correction • Filtration—The movement of water and particles through a membrane by force o Small solutes moving from high pressure to low pressure Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 23 Structural Levels of Organization • Tissues Epithelial tissue • Covers outside of the body and some internal structures • Functions • • • Protection Absorption Secretion Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 24 Structural Levels of Organization • Types of epithelial tissue Simple squamous • Alveoli of lungs and lining of vessels Simple columnar • Lining of stomach, intestines, and respiratory tract Stratified squamous • Lining of mouth and esophagus; surface of skin Stratified transitional • Urinary bladder Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 25 Structural Levels of Organization • Connective tissue Connects • Joins tissues or structures to the body Types • • • • • • • Areolar: between tissues and organs Adipose: under skin Dense fibrous: tendons Bone: skeleton Cartilage: ear Blood: vessels Hematopoietic: bone marrow Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 26 Structural Levels of Organization • Muscle tissue Contracts in response to a message from the brain or spinal cord Types • Skeletal • Voluntary; attached to bones • Cardiac • Involuntary; form the heart • Smooth (visceral) • • Involuntary Lining of internal organs (blood vessels, stomach, intestines, uterus) Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 27 Structural Levels of Organization • Nervous tissue Provides rapid communication between body structures and control of body functions Brain, spinal cord, nerves Neurons • Transmit impulses or messages Glial cells • Support and nourish the neurons Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 28 Structural Levels of Organization • Membranes Epithelial membranes • Mucous membranes • Line body surfaces that open to the outside • Nose, mouth, urinary tract, reproductive tract, etc. Secrete mucus • Thick, slippery material • Keeps membranes soft and moist • Protects against bacterial invasion • Lubricant in GI tract Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 29 Structural Levels of Organization • Serous membranes Line body surfaces that do not open to the outside • Lungs, intestines, heart Secrete serous fluid • Thin, watery fluid Two layers • Parietal membrane (lines the wall of the cavity) • Visceral membrane (covers the surface of the organ) Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 30 Structural Levels of Organization • Connective tissue membranes (synovial membranes) Line the joint spaces between bones and prevent friction Secrete synovial fluid • Thick, colorless lubricating fluid Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 31 Structural Levels of Organization • Organs/systems Integumentary • • • • • • Skin Hair Nails Sense receptors Sweat glands Oil glands Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 32 Structural Levels of Organization • Skeletal system Bones Joints • Muscular system Muscles • Nervous system Brain Spinal cord Nerves • Circulatory system Heart and blood vessels Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 33 Structural Levels of Organization • Endocrine system Pituitary glands Pineal gland Hypothalamus Thyroid gland Parathyroids Thymus Adrenals Pancreas Ovaries (female) Testes (male) Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 34 Structural Levels of Organization • Lymphatic system Lymph nodes and vessels Thymus Spleen Tonsils • Respiratory system Nose Pharynx Larynx Trachea Bronchi Lungs Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 35 Structural Levels of Organization • Digestive system (primary organs) Mouth Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Rectum Anal canal Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 36 Structural Levels of Organization • Digestive system (accessory organs) Teeth Salivary glands Tongue Liver Gallbladder Pancreas Appendix Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 37 Structural Levels of Organization • Urinary system Kidneys Ureters Urinary bladder Urethra Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 38 Structural Levels of Organization • Reproductive system (male) Gonads • Testes Genital ducts • Vas deferens • Urethra Accessory glands • Prostate Supporting structures Genitalia • Penis and scrotum Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 39 Structural Levels of Organization • Reproductive system (female) Gonads • Ovaries Accessory organs • Uterus • Fallopian tubes • Vagina Supporting structures Genitalia • Vulva Mammary glands (breasts) Mosby items and derived items © 2011, 2006, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1991 by Mosby, Inc., an affiliate of Elsevier Inc. Slide 40