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GRAMMAR
Parts of Speech
Parts of the Sentence
Phrases
Clauses
Verbals
GRAMMAR REVIEW
PARTS OF SPEECH
I.
NOUNS
A noun is a word that names one (or more) person, place, thing or idea.
8, 9, 10
Proper Noun
A proper noun names a particular person, place or thing and always begins with a capital. e.g. Fred,
Vancouver, Big Mac
8, 9, 10
Common Noun
A common noun does not name any particular person, place or thing. e.g. child, city, perfume
8, 9, 10
Abstract Noun
An abstract noun names a quality, characteristic, or an idea. e.g. kindness, freedom, communism
8, 9, 10
Collective Noun
A collective noun names a group, and is singular in form but plural in meaning. e.g. class,
committee, crew, team
II.
PRONOUNS
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun and refers back to an antecedent which is named or
implied.
8, 9, 10
Personal Pronoun
I, me, you, she, her, he, him, it, we, us, they, them
8, 9, 10
Possessive Personal Pronoun
my, mine, your, yours, his, hers, its, their, our, ours, their, theirs
Reflexive Pronoun (Personal Pronoun and "Self"
himself, myself, themselves
9, 10
Relative Pronoun
The relative pronoun is used to introduce subordinate clauses -- who, whom, which, what, that
9, 10
Interrogative Pronoun
The interrogative pronoun is used in questions. Who...? Whom...? Which...? What...? Whose...?
2
9, 10
Demonstrative Pronoun
The demonstrative pronoun is used to point out -- this, that, these, those. e.g. That is red.
9, 10
Indefinite Pronouns
Care must be taken in using indefinite pronouns because errors can easily be made when determining
whether they are singular or plural.
III.
Singular:
any, anybody, each, either, neither, none, no one, somebody, everybody, everyone
Plural:
all, both, few, many, several, some
ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word used to modify a noun or pronoun.
8, 9, 10
To modify -- means to describe, or to make more definite the meaning of the word.
Adjectives may modify nouns or pronouns in any one of four ways:
9, 10
1.
by telling what kind (blue eyes, strong wind)
2.
by pointing out which one (that tall man, this suggestion)
3.
by telling how many (several reasons, 10 players)
4.
by telling whose (Geoff's watch, their papers)
Interrogative Adjective
e.g. Which man is he? What book do you want? I don't know what magazine you mean?
8, 9, 10
Article
The, a, an, are modifiers or determiners.
8, 9, 10
IV.

"the"
=
definite article

"a, an"
=
indefinite article
VERBS
The verb is the heart of the sentence -- without a verb, any words is only a sentence fragment. A
verb is a word, or group of words, that expresses action, indicates a state of being, or asserts
something. It is used in:

making a statement (The rain falls gently.)

asking a question (Are you happy?)

giving a command (Walk carefully.)
Action Verb
An action verb may express either physical or mental action.

hit, blow, run (physical)

think, know (mental)
3
9, 10
Linking Verbs
Linking verbs do not express action. They help to make a statement by linking the subject to a word
or idea in the predicate which we call a subjective completion.
e.g.
appear, feel, sound, become, smell, taste, seem
The most common linking verb is the verb to be and its many forms.
SINGULAR
I am
you are
he, she, it is
we are
you are
the are
SINGULAR
I was
you were
he, she, it was
PLURAL
we were
you were
they were
I have been
you have been
he, it has been
we have been
you have been
they have been
I can be
you can be
he, she, it can be
we, you can be
you can be
they can be
8, 9, 10
PLURAL
Transitive Verb
A transitive verb is a verb with a receiver of the action (direct object) to complete its meaning.
e.g.
9, 10
The boy caught a salmon. (The direction object tells what he caught.)
Intransitive Verb
An intransitive verb is a verb with NO receiver of the action to complete its meaning.
e.g.
9, 10
The boy fished in the stream. (The sentence tells where he fished, not what he hoped to
catch.)
Verb Phrase
A verb phrase is made up of a main verb and one or more helping verbs. Helping verbs
(auxiliary verbs) are so called because they help the main verb to express action or make a
statement.
e.g.
9, 10
will be coming
must have been hurt
Common Helping Verbs
e.g.
8, 9, 10
has played
V.
do, did, am, are, was, were, have, has, had, can, may, will (shall) be, has (had), been, could,
would, should, must, must have been, might have seen
ADVERB
An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. An adverb may tell
when, where, how, why, to what extent, or how much.
e.g.
The band played stirringly.
The band played immediately.
The band played there.
The band played endlessly.
4
(how it played)
(when it played)
(where it played)
(how much it played)
Often adding "ly" to an adjective changes it into an adverb.
Adverbs are generally placed after the verb they go with, but they may appear anywhere in a sentence
for emphasis. Adjectives are generally put before the noun or pronoun they modify.
8, 9, 10
VI.
PREPOSTIONS
A preposition is a connective. It always introduces a prepositional phrase and shows the relationship
between its object (noun or pronoun) and some other word in the sentence. The noun or pronoun
at the end of a prepositional phrase is the object of the preposition which begins the phrase.
Common Prepositions
e.g.
others:
e.g.
at, by, for, from, in, of, to, with
about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, before, behind, below, beside,
between, beyond, concerning, despite, down, during, except, inside, into, like, near, off,
on, out, over, past, since, through, throughout, toward, under, underneath, until, up,
upon, within, without
The boy (with a dog) lives (on a farm).
preposition (with)
noun object (dog)
prepositional phrase (with a dog)
preposition (on)
noun object (farm)
prepositional phrase (on a farm)
This phrase tells us about boy.
The phrase with the dog is an
adjectival phrase.
The full name of the phrase is a
prepositional adjectival phrase.
This phrase tells us where he lives.
Lives is a verb.
The phrase on a farm is an
adverbial phrase.
The full name of the phrase is a
prepositional adverbial phrase.
The adjectival phrase modifies a noun or pronoun.
The adverbial phrase modifies the verb.
e.g.
8, 9, 10
VII.
The teacher (of the class).
-
adjectival phrase modifying the noun
"teacher"
The boys stood (around the room).
-
adverbial phrase modifying the verb
"stood"
INTERJECTIONS
An interjection is a word which expresses emotion and has no grammatical relation to the other
words in the sentence.
e.g.
Oh! Ah! Ouch! Alas! Ha! My goodness!
Interjections are followed by an exclamation mark or comma.
8, 9, 10
VIII.
CONJUNCTIONS
Conjunctions join words, phrases, and clauses.
5
e.g.
John and Joe ran to school and away from the park.
"and" joins two words
"and" joins two phrases
There are four kinds of conjunctions.
8, 9, 10
Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions join words, phrases, and sentences of equal value. The Coordinating
Conjunctions are: and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so.
9, 10
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions join words, phrases, and sentences of equal value and are always used in
pairs.
The Correlative Conjunctions are: either -- or, neither -- nor, not only -- but also, whether -- or.
9, 10
Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions join less important clauses to the main ideas of the sentence. Therefore,
the clauses are not of equal value.
The Subordinating Conjunctions are: after, although, as, because, before, how, if, since, so that, that,
unless, until, when, where, while, unless, as though, as if, wherever, provided that, even though, even
if, no matter what, in spite of the fact that, in as much as, so that, in order that, whereas.
9, 10
Conjunctive Adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs join two independent clauses. The conjunctive adverb is preceded by a
semicolon and is followed by a comma.
The Conjunctive Adverbs are: however, nevertheless, otherwise, therefore, still, then.
e.g.
We drove to Blackcomb; however, it was too foggy to ski.
6
PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
8, 9, 10
IX.
THE SENTENCE
A sentence is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate.
A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause.
e.g.
The whole class sang songs. (simple subject and simple verb)
Dawn and Sue were studying together. (compound subject)
Roberta finished her letter and mailed it. (compound verb or compound bare
predicate)
8, 9, 10
X.
SUBJECT
The subject is the doer of the action, or the word or group of words spoken about in a sentence.
Bare Subject
The head-word of the subject is the bare subject and it is usually a noun.
Complete Subject
The word or group of words spoken about in a sentence including its modifiers.
e.g.
The little boy with the smile on his face ran down the street.
The simple subject (boy)
The complete subject (The little boy with the smile on his face)
8, 9, 10
XI.
PREDICATE
The word or group of words that tells us something about the subject. (predicates indicate action or
state of being)
The predicate always contains a verb.
Bare Predicate
The head-word of the predicate is the bare predicate and is always a verb.
Complete Predicate
The word or group of words that tell us something about the subject.
e.g.
The little boy with the smile on his face ran down the street.
The simple predicate (ran)
The complete predicate (ran down the street)
7
9, 10
XII.
PHRASES
A group of words without a verb which usually acts as a modifier. A phrase makes sense but not
complete sense by itself. It depends on the rest of the sentence to complete the thought.
**
THERE ARE MANY KINDS OF PHRASES





prepositional phrases (adjectival or adverbial)
verb phrases
gerund phrases
participial phrases
infinitive phrases
**
for specific information, refer to: verb phrases (p. 4), prepositions (p. 5) and verbals (p. 12)
XIII.
CLAUSE
A clause MUST contain a subject and a predicate.
9, 10
Main Clause
A main clause is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate and can be a sentence by itself.
9, 10
Subordinate Clauses
A subordinate clause depends on another clause for its full meaning. Subordinate clauses begin with
subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns.
9, 10
Adjectival Clauses
Adjectival clauses are subordinate clauses that modify nouns. Adjectival clauses begin with relative
pronouns (who, which, that, whom, whose, where, when).
e.g.
9, 10
I know the architect who designed your house. (The adjectival clause modifies architect,
telling us which architect is being discussed.)
Adverbial Clauses
Adverbial clauses are subordinate clauses that usually modify verbs, but sometimes adverbial clauses
modify adjectives or other adverbs. They begin with subordinate conjunctions (because, although,
since, when, where, etc.)
e.g.
10
Because the car went through the stop sign, the police arrested the driver. (The
adverbial clause modifies the verb "arrested" and explains why the police arrested the driver.)
Noun Clauses
Noun clauses function as nouns in a sentence and are part of the main clause. Noun clauses begin
with a subordinate conjunction (where, when, why, what, etc.).
e.g.
What you said is foolish. (The noun clause functions as the subject of the verb "is".)
8
PARTS OF SPEECH AND RELATIONSHIPS IN A SENTENCE
XIV.
8, 9, 10
NOUNS AND NOUN RELATIONSHIPS
Subject of the Verb
**

The subject is the doer of the action.

The word or group of words spoken about in a sentence.

The subject usually comes before the verb.

It is usually at the beginning of a sentence or after an introductory phrase or clause.
Ask the question "Who?" or "What?" and then say the verb.
e.g.
8, 9, 10
The zookeeper fed the monkeys.
Who fed the monkeys? (the zookeeper)
The noun "zookeeper" is subject of the verb "fed".
Direct Object
**

The receiver of the action.

The direct object usually comes after the verb.

It is the receiver of the action.

Transitive verbs take a direct object.
Say the verb and then ask "Whom?" or "What?".
e.g.
Subject
Verb
Direct Object
The zookeeper
The cat
fed
caught
the monkeys.
a mouse.
The direct object answers the question "what?"
The zookeeper fed what? (the monkeys)
The cat caught what? (the mouse)
8, 9, 10
Indirect Object
**

The indirect object of the verb precedes the direct object and usually tells to whom or for
whom the action of the verb is done.

When two or more nouns or pronouns follow a transitive verb the first one is often the
indirect object.
Say the verb and the direct object and then say "to whom?" or "for whom?".
e.g.
The zookeeper
fed
the monkeys
Subject
Predicate
Indirect Object
peanuts.
Direct Object
The indirect object answers the question to whom, to what or for whom.
The zookeeper fed peanuts to what? (to the monkeys).
Monkeys is the indirect object of the verb fed.
9
8, 9, 10
Object of the Preposition

The object of the preposition is the noun that ends a prepositional phrase.

There must be a preposition in the sentence for there to be an object of the preposition.
e.g.
Sally sat (in the room).
"in" is the preposition.
9, 10
"room" is the object of the preposition.
Subjective Completion to the Subject
**

The subject completion is a noun or an adjective which follows a linking verb and refers
back to the subject.

The subject completion follows the verb.

It is the same as or tells you more about the subject.
Say the non-action verb and then ask "Who?" or "What?".
e.g.
Sally is a friend.
Who or what is Sally?
(a friend)
The doctor was angry.
What was the doctor?
(He was angry.)
Note: A subjective completion may be a noun, pronoun or adjective (predicate adjective).
10
THE PROCESS FOR DETERMINING THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE
1.
LOCATE AND ISOLATE THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES.
Remember you will not find subjects, predicates (verbs), direct objects, indirect objects and subject
completions in prepositional phrases.
The nouns at the end of a prepositional phrase are THE OBJECTS OF THE PREPOSITION.
2.
IDENTIFY THE SUBJECT AND THE PREDICATE (VERB)
LOOK AT THE VERB -- IS IT AN ACTION OR A LINKING VERB?
IF IT IS AN ACTION VERB
3.
LOOK FOR A DIRECT OBJECT
Say the subject and the verb and ask "what?".
4.
IF YOU FIND A DIRECT OBJECT, LOOK FOR AN
INDIRECT OBJECT
Say the subject and the verb and direct object and ask "to
whom/what?" OR "for whom/what?"
5.
Check the format. Far more often than not, the structure of a
sentence will be:
S
+
V
+
I.O.
+
D.O.
(The indirect object almost always comes before the direct object)
IF IT IS A LINKING VERB
3.
LOOK FOR A SUBJECT COMPLETION
Say the subject and the verb and ask "what?". The answer, if it is a
noun or an adjective, is the subject completion.
WARNING:
Beware of verb phrases.
11
XV.
VERBALS
A verbal is a form of the verb that has some of the characteristics of a verb but is used as a noun, an
adjective or an adverb. There are three types of verbals: gerund, participle and infinitive.
10
Gerunds
A gerund functions as a noun. When it functions as a noun, it may take an object and be modified
by an adverb. We call this a gerund phrase. Gerunds always end in "ing".
Forms of the Gerund
10
Active
Passive
reading (present)
having read (perfect)
being read
having been read
e.g.
In the examples below the gerund is in bold print and the gerund phrase is underlined.
1.
Reading the note was painful for her. (gerund phrase used as subject)
2.
He was punished not for his crime but for being in the wrong place at the wrong time.
(gerund phrase used as object of the preposition)
Participles
A participle may function as an adjective. When it functions as an adjective, it may take an object
and be modified by an adverb. We call this a participial phrase. (A participle may also act as part
of a verb phrase with an auxiliary verb.)
Participles may end in "ing", "ed", or "t".
Forms of the Participle as a Verbal
Active
Passive
reading (present)
having read (perfect)
read (past)
being read
having been read
read
e.g.
In the examples below the participle is in bold print and the participial phrase is underlined.
1.
I am not at all surprised that the girl reading the book is my sister. (modifies girl)
2.
The class likes the book now being studied. (modifies book)
3.
John, having called the police, sat and waited. (modifies John)
4.
The newly married couple went on a trip. (modifies couple)
12
10
Infinitives
An infinitive may act as a noun, an adjective or an adverb. It may take an object and be modified by
an adverb and then be called an infinitive phrase. Infinitives always begin with "to" plus the verb.
Forms of the Infinitive as a Verbal
Active
Passive
to read (present)
to be reading (present progressive)
to have been reading (present perfect progressive)
to be read
to have been read
e.g.
In the examples below the infinitive is in bold print and the infinitive phrase is underlined.
1.
John wanted to read David Copperfield. (noun used as direct object)
2.
The essay to be read is not long. (adjective modifying "essay")
3.
He seems to be reading now. (adjective modifying "he" used as subjective completion)
4.
He is wise to have read widely. (adverb modifying the adjective "wise")
5.
These books were to have been read during the summer. (adjective modifying "books"
used as subjective completion)
6.
To have been reading all this time without understanding is foolish. (noun used as subject
of the verb "is")
13