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Effective Training: Strategies,
Systems and Practices, 3rd Edition
Chapter Five
Training Design
P. Nick Blanchard and James W. Thacker
Design Phase
Input
Process
Output
Learning
Theory
Determine factors
that facilitate
learning & transfer
Training
Needs
Develop
Training
Objectives
Identify alternative
method of
instruction
Chapter 6
Organizational
Evaluation
objectives
Constraints
Chapter 8
Chapter 5
2
Constraints and Possible Ways of
Dealing with Them – Part 1 of 3
Constraints
Need high level of stimulation1
because:
Law (fire drills)
Task critical to the job (police
firing gun)
Mistakes costly (airline pilot)
Trainees vary in amounts of
experience
Trainees have large differences
in ability levels
Suggestion for How to Handle
Incorporate a longer lead time to
prepare simulations/role plays.
Purchase Simulators.
Consider modularization.
Use programmed instruction. Have
high level of trainer/trainee
interaction.
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Constraints and Possible Ways of
Dealing with Them – Part 2 of 3
Constraints
Mix of employees and new hires
trained on a new procedure
Long lag between end of training
and use of the skill on the
job
Short lead time
Suggestion for How to Handle
Consider different training programs;
may be negative transfer for
employees but not for new hires.
Distribute practice through the lag.
Provide refresher material and/or
models for employees to follow.
Use external consultant or training
package.
Chapter 5
4
Constraints and Possible Ways of
Dealing with Them – Part 3 of 3
Constraints
Suggestion for How to Handle
Bias against a type of training
(role play, etc.)
Develop proof of effectiveness into
the training package.
Use another method.
Few trainees available at any
one time
Use programmed instruction.
Small organization with limited
funds
Hire consultant/purchase training.
Join consortium.
Chapter 5
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Guide to determining time required
to prepare training – Part 1 of 3
Variables
Level Of Effort For Design
Low
Medium
High
Who
 extensive
knowledge and
skills
 Moderate
knowledge and skills
 minimal knowledge
and skills
2. Designer knowledge
of subject matter
 extensive
knowledge
 some knowledge
 no knowledge
3. Size and complexity of
the target training group
 small,
homogeneous
 medium size,
moderately complex
 large, complex
4. Designer’s and client’s
track record for sticking
to plans
 always stick
1. Designer knowledge
and skills related to
instructional design
 sometimes stick
Chapter 5
 never stick
6
Guide to determining time required
to prepare training – Part 2 of 3
Variables
Level Of Effort For Design
Low
Medium
High
What
5. the number of
instruction modules
6. Elements included in
the training materials
7. client’s or organization’s
expectations regarding
packaging
8. what is considered
final product
 few (5 modules)
 several (8
modules)
 many (12
modules)
 trainee manual
only
 instructor and
participant manuals
 instructor and
participant manuals,
overheads, job aids
 minimal
(produced inhouse)
 modest (desktop
publishing)
 extensive
(professionally
produced)
 first draft by
designer, client
does rest
 designer
completes up to the
pilot
Chapter 5
 designer
completes all drafts,
finalizes after pilot
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Guide to determining time required
to prepare training – Part 3 of 3
Variables
Level Of Effort For Design
Low
Medium
High
How
9. data collection
10. designer’s
interaction with the
client
11. client’s level of
involvement
12. Amount of
interactivity
 a focus group
made up of a few
well-informed people
 deals directly with
top decision maker
 approves general
direction and final
draft
 minimal
 a focus group and
a few interviews
 deals with more
than one level of
decision makers
 reviews and
approves key
materials
 moderate
Chapter 5
 several focus
groups and several
interviews
 deals with a
complex labormanagement
committee
 reviews and
approves all
materials
 extensive
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Proposal for developing a one day
workshop on Effective
Communication
Action
Time
Rate
Total
Interview relevant employees to determine
issues and context to develop training
1 day
$1,000
$1,000
Develop objectives and plan for developing
training. Includes identifying appropriate
instructional methods and developing
evaluation objectives
2.5 days
$1,000
$2,500
Develop training materials based on
objectives
8 days
$1,000
$8,000
Prepare
Develop usual aids and evaluation material
Miscellaneous
2.5 days
$1,000
$2,500
$1,400
$15,400
TOTAL
Chapter 5
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Types of Costs in Training Programs
Development Costs – such as TNA
Direct Costs – actual cost of program
Indirect Costs – such preparation costs
Overhead Costs – equipment, facilities
Participant Compensation
Evaluation Costs
Chapter 5
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Training Costs for Grievance
Reduction Training – Part 1 of 2
Developmental Costs
1.20 days of director’s time at $50,000 per year
2. 5 days of trainer’s time at $30,000 per year
3.Materials
$ 4,000
$ 600
$ 1,000
Direct Costs
1. 5 days of trainer’s time at $30,000 per year
2. Training facility rental 5 days at $150 per day
3. Materials and equipment
4. Coffee, juice, and muffins
Chapter 5
$ 600
$ 750
$ 2,000
$ 600
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Training Costs for Grievance
Reduction Training – Part 2 of 2
Indirect Costs
1.1 day trainer preparation
2. 3 days administrative preparation at
20,000 per year
$ 120
$ 120
Participant Compensation (may include travel)
1.30 supervisors attending 5-day workshop
(Average $35,000 / yr.)
$21,000
Evaluation Costs
1. 6 days of evaluator’s time at $30,000 per year
2. Materials
$ 720
$ 800
Total Training Costs
$32,310
Chapter 5
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Program Objectives


Mager: “Description of a performance
you want learners to be able to exhibit
before you consider them competent”
Specify what learners should be able to
do, conditions under which they must
do it, and criteria in judging success
Chapter 5
13
Performance Objectives




Objective
Indicator
Understand how to
read X-rays
Discriminate between
normal and abnormal
X-rays
Knowledge of loans
Recall procedure for
making a loan
Ability to read
diagrams
Identify transistors
on a schematic diagram
Chapter 5
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False Objectives



Show an appreciation for loan
procedures
Be able to think critically and
analytically
Have a deep awareness and thorough
humanizing grasp of interpersonal
relations
Chapter 5
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Conditions for Performance


Relevant and important conditions
under which performance is expected to
occur
“Repair a motor with two minor defects
using a standard set of tools and
diagrams”
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Criterion for Performance



How well trainees should be able to
perform in order to be acceptable
Includes speed, accuracy and quality
Examples: finish in 20 minutes, no more
that 2 errors, within a tolerance of .1
inch
Chapter 5
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Types of Training Objectives –
Part 1 of 2 (Kirkpatrick)
1. Trainee Reaction
Objectives:
Describes the desired trainee attitudinal
and subjective evaluations of training
2. Learning Objectives:
Describes the type of behavior that will
demonstrate the learning, the
conditions under which the behavior
must occur, and the criteria that will
signify that a sufficient level of
learning has occurred
Chapter 5
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Types of Training Objectives –
Part 2 of 2
3. Transfer of Training
Objectives:
4. Organizational
Outcome
Objectives:
Describes job behaviors that will be
affected by training, the conditions
under which those behaviors must
occur, and the criteria that will
signify that a sufficient transfer of
learning from training to the job has
occurred
Describes the organizational outcomes
that will be affected by the transfer of
learning to the job and the criteria
that will signify that organizational
outcome objectives have been
achieved
Chapter 5
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Learning Objectives Improved –
Part 1 of 2
After
Before
Upon completion of training the
trainee:
Will be able to apply theories of
motivation to different situations
Upon completion of training the trainee:
After reading a scenario of an
unmotivated student, and without the
use of any outside material, identify
orally to the class what you would do
to motivate the student, and explain
which theory you used and why.
Trainee must identify at least 3
motivators and tie to correct theory.
Must be correct on 4 of the 5 scenarios
Chapter 5
20
Learning Objectives Improved –
Part 2 of 2
After
Before
Upon completion of training the
trainee:
Upon completion of training the trainee:
When asked, correctly identify to the
Will understand what is needed
trainer 5 things that are necessary to
to have an effective team
have an effective team.
Will have knowledge of three
types of active listening, and
be able to use the
appropriate one in a
particular situation
In a role play, appropriately respond to
an angry comment using one of the
active listening types, then correctly
explain to the class which was used
and why.
Chapter 5
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Trainee Characteristics

Trainability = f(Motivation, Ability,
Perceptions of work environment)




Perceptions of training
Self-efficacy
Factors that increase motivation
Personality and attitudes

Extraversion, openness, conscientiousness,
agreeableness, stability
Chapter 5
22
No Trait and Treatment Interaction
High
Training Design A
Training Design B
Low
Low
High
Individual Trait
Chapter 5
23
A Trait and Treatment Interaction
High
Training Design A
Training Design B
Low
Low
High
Individual Trait
Chapter 5
24
Social Learning Processes and
Corresponding Training Events
Attention/Expectancy
Learning environment, pre-training
communications, statement of objectives and
process, highlighting of key learning points
Retention
Activation of memory
Stimulation of prior related learning
Symbolic coding and
cognitive organization
Presentation of encoding schemes and images,
associations with previously learned material,
order of presentation during training
Symbolic rehearsal and
cues for retrieval
Case studies, hypothetical scenarios, aids for
transfer (identical elements and principles)
Behavioral Reproduction
Active and guided practice (role plays
and simulations)
Assessment and feedback (positive and/or
negative)
Reinforcement
Chapter 5
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Conditions of Practice


Active practice – can be mental practice
Massed vs. spaced practice





Rest intervals early in training
Less meaningful, greater difficulty and
amount
Less capable, less experienced learner
Retention
Whole vs. part
Chapter 5
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Conditions of Practice


Overlearning
Knowledge of results/feedback




Important aspects
Provisions of feedback
Specify corrective actions
Reward/punishment consequences
Chapter 5
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Retention




Meaningfulness of material
Degree of original learning
Retroactive interference – new learning
interferes with old learning
Proactive – old learning interferes with
the retention of new learning
Chapter 5
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Seven Step Relapse-Prevention
Training
Step
1. Choose a skill to retain
2. Set goals
3. Commit to retain the skill
4. Learn coping (relapse prevention)
strategies
5. Identify likely circumstances for first
relapse
6. Practice coping (relapse prevention)
strategies
7. Learn to monitor target skill
Chapter 5
29
Coping Strategies for Relapse
Prevention – Part 1 of 2
Step
Understand the relapse process
Recognize difference between training and work setting
Create an effective support network on the job
Identify high risk situations
Chapter 5
30
Coping Strategies for Relapse
Prevention – Part 2 of 2
Step
Reduce emotional reactions that interfere with learning
Diagnose specific support skills necessary to retain
new skill
Identify organizational support for skill retention
Chapter 5
31
Transfer of Training
Stimulus
Response
same
same
same
different
Transfer
positive
different
negative
different
zero/none
Chapter 5
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Increasing Transfer







Maximize similarity
Practice
Variety of situations and examples
Understand general principles
Support
Opportunity to perform on the job
Feedback and reinforcement
Chapter 5
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A Plan to Apply Skills Back on the
Job
1.
What skill/technique: (be specific)
2.
What will using skill/technique: (be specific)
3. What are the positive and negative consequences of using and not
using the skill.
Positive (+)
Negative (-)
Using
Skill
Not
Using
Skill
4.
What will a “slip” look like?
5.
How will you feel if you slip back to old techniques?
6.
Under what circumstances is a slip likely to occur?
7.
What support is needed?
Chapter 5
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Gagne-Briggs Nine Events of
Instruction – Part 1 of 2
Instructional Event
Relation to Social Learning Theory
Gain attention
Attention
Informing the trainee of Goal
(objectives)
Attention
Stimulate recall of prior
knowledge (learning)
Retention: Activation of memory
Present the material
Retention: Activation of memory,
Semantic coding, Cognitive
organization
Chapter 5
35
Gagne-Briggs Nine Events of
Instruction – Part 2 of 2
Instructional Event
Relation to Social Learning Theory
Provide guidance for learning
Retention: Semantic coding/ cognitive
organization through guided discovery
Retention: Symbolic Rehearsal
Elicit performance (practice)
Behavioral Reproduction
Provide informative feedback
Reinforcement
Assess performance
Enhance retention and transfer
Reinforcement
Chapter 5
36
Learning and Transfer Factors as
related to Social Learning theory and
Gagne Briggs theory of design – 1 of 5
Social learning
Theory
Pretraining
Gagne Briggs
9 events of
instruction
Attention/Expectancy
Influence expectations
& attitudes of trainees.
Factors to Consider
Identify those with low expectations/
send to pre-training workshop
Provide information to influence
expectancies/ identify positive outcomes.
Demonstrate the need
for training and set
goals
Chapter 5
Do needs analysis so only relevant
trainees attend.
Have supervisors discuss
performance of trainee and set
mutual goals.
Have learning objectives distributed
ahead of time.
37
Learning and Transfer Factors as
related to Social Learning theory and
Gagne Briggs theory of design – 2 of 5
Social learning
Theory
Training
Beginning
Attention/
Expectancy
Create/reinforce
positive attitude
toward training
Gagne Briggs
9 events of
instruction
Gain Attention
Inform trainee
of goals
Factors to Consider
Allow time for instructor and trainee
introductions and develop a
relaxed atmosphere
Allow for time to go through needs
analysis, show learning
objectives, and discuss
usefulness on the job; draw
example from trainees
Choose site where anxiety level will
be low (see classical
conditioning). Choose proper
facilities.
Eliminate
distractions
Chapter 5
38
Learning and Transfer Factors as
related to Social Learning theory and
Gagne Briggs theory of design – 3 of 5
Social learning
Theory
During
Gagne Briggs
9 events of
instruction
Retention
Make relevant
Factors to Consider
Continue to focus on training
objectives
Stimulate
recall of prior
knowledge
Develop links between previous
learning and the new learning
(activation of memory).
Present
material
Use multiple media and make
interesting
Ask questions and get involvement
Chapter 5
39
Learning and Transfer Factors as
related to Social Learning theory and
Gagne Briggs theory of design – 4 of 5
Social learning
Theory
Make interesting
Gagne Briggs
9 events of
instruction
Provide
guidance for
learning
Behavioral
Elicit
Reproduction/
performance
Reinforcement
Encourage learning
Provide
feedback
Chapter 5
Factors to Consider
Get trainees involved (symbolic
rehearsal)
Use relevant examples and offer
many of them
Provide relevant practice process
(including maximum similarity
and/or different situations).
Let trainees know how they are
doing.
40
Learning and Transfer Factors as
related to Social Learning theory and
Gagne Briggs theory of design – 4 of 5
Social learning
Theory
Ending
Reinforcement
Be sure trainees see
results of training
Sensitize trainees to
difficulty in transfer
of training
Gagne Briggs
9 events of
instruction
Factors to Consider
Assess
Provide time for examining objectives
performance
to see what was accomplished.
Provide time to evaluate performance
level accomplished and provide
feedback
Enhance
retention
and transfer
Incorporate relapse-prevention
strategy. Provide commitment of
trainer to meet with trainees to
facilitate transfer.
Develop trainees goals for transfer of
training
Chapter 5
41
Learning and Transfer Factors as
related to Social Learning theory and
Gagne Briggs theory of design – 5 of 5
Social learning
Theory
PostTraining
Gagne Briggs
9 events of
instruction
Reinforcement
Facilitate transfer
Factors to Consider
Obtain support from supervisor/
peers/ trainer to help trainee in
transferring the training to the
workplace.
Ensure that reward systems are in
line with newly trained behaviors.
Chapter 5
42
Learning Curves



Negatively accelerated – material easy,
experienced learner, high ability
Positively accelerated – material
complex, learner inexperienced
S shaped – positively accelerated in
early stages negatively in later
(common)
Chapter 5
43
Plateaus in Learning




Hierarchy of habits
Motivation declines
Incorrect learning being eliminated
Learning material that is complex whole
composed of several simple parts
Chapter 5
44
Perceptual Preferences







Print
Visual
Aural
Interactive
Tactile/manipulative
Kinesthetic/psychomotor
Olfactory
Chapter 5
45