Download Understanding Psychology by Morris and Maisto

Understanding Psychology
6th Edition
Charles G. Morris and Albert A. Maisto
PowerPoint Presentation by
H. Lynn Bradman
Metropolitan Community College
©Prentice Hall 2003
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Chapter 1
The Science of Psychology
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What Is Psychology?
• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior
and mental processes.
• Psychologists are interested in every aspect
of human thought and behavior.
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Fields of Psychology
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Developmental
Physiological
Experimental
Personality
Clinical and Counseling
Social
Industrial and Organizational
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Developmental Psychology
• Studies human mental and physical growth
from conception to death
– Child psychologists
– Adolescent psychologists
– Life-span psychologists
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Physiological Psychology
• Investigates the biological basis of human
behavior
– Neuropsychologists
– Psychobiologists
– Behavioral geneticists
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Experimental Psychology
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Learning
Memory
Sensation
Perception
Cognition
Motivation
Emotion
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Personality Psychology
• Personality psychologists study the
differences among individuals.
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Clinical and Counseling
Psychology
• Clinical psychologists are interested primarily
in the diagnosis, cause, and treatment of
psychological disorders.
• Counseling psychologists are concerned
primarily with “normal” problems of
adjustments in life.
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Social Psychology
• Social psychologists study how people
influence one another.
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Industrial and Organizational
Psychology
• Psychology applied to the workplace
• I/O psychologists are interested in selecting
and training personnel
• Improving productivity and working
conditions
• The impact of computerization and
automation on workers
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Enduring Issues in
Psychology
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Person/Situation
Nature/Nurture
Stability/Change
Diversity/Universality
Mind/Body
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Psychology as Science
• Scientific method
• Theory
• Hypotheses
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Scientific Method
• An approach to knowledge that relies on a
systematic method of generating hypotheses,
collecting data, and explaining the data.
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Theory
• The systematic explanation of a
phenomenon.
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Hypothesis
• A specific, testable prediction derived from a
theory.
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Goals of Psychology
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Describe
Explain
Predict
Control or Influence behavior
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The Growth of Psychology
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The "New Psychology:"
A Science of the Mind
• Since the time of Plato and Aristotle, people
have wondered and written about human
behavior and mental processes.
– During the late 1800s, they began to apply the
scientific method to questions that had puzzled
philosophers for centuries.
– Psychology came into being as a formal, scientific
discipline separate from philosophy.
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The History of Psychology
• The history of psychology can be divided into
three main stages:
– The emergence of a science of the mind
– The behaviorist decade
– And the "cognitive revolution"
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Structuralism: Wundt and
Titchener
• Structuralism was concerned with identifying
the units of conscious experience.
• 1879: Wundt founds psychology’s first
laboratory at Leipzig.
• Titchener subdivided consciousness into
physical sensations, feelings, and images.
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Functionalism: William James
• Functionalism was concerned with the
ongoing use of conscious experience.
• James argued that consciousness cannot be
broken into elements.
• James coined the phrase “stream of
consciousness.”
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Sigmund Freud:
Psychodynamic Psychology
• Freud focused on the unconscious
determinants of behavior.
• Freud developed a method of therapy called
psychoanalysis.
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Behaviorism:
Watson and Skinner
• Behaviorism is only concerned with behavior
that can be observed and measured.
• Watson founded behaviorism.
• Skinner focused on the role of reinforcement.
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The Cognitive Revolution
• Wertheimer, Köhler, and Koffka were
interested in tricks of perception.
• The Gestalt movement was concerned with
the perception of “good form.”
• Coined the phrase “the whole is not equal to
the sum of its parts.”
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Existential and Humanistic
• Existentialism is concerned with alienation
and apathy in modern life.
• Humanism is concerned with helping people
realize their full potential.
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Cognitive Psychology
• Concerned with memory, thinking, language,
learning, decision making
• Expanded the concept of “behavior” to
include thoughts, feelings, and states of
consciousness
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Evolutionary Psychology
• Concerned with the evolutionary origins of
behaviors and mental processes
• Their adaptive value and the purposes they
continue to serve
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Positive Psychology
• Focuses on positive experiences
• Looks for a positive relationship between
positive emotions and physical health
• Identifies the factors that allow individuals,
communities and societies to flourish.
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Multiple Perspectives Today
• Contemporary psychologists tend to see
different perspectives as complimentary.
• Most agree that the field advances with the
addition of new evidence to support or
challenge existing theories.
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Where Are The Women?
• Women have contributed to psychology from
its beginnings.
• Women presented papers and joined the
national professional association as soon as it
was formed in 1892.
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Where Are The Women?
• Women faced discrimination.
• Some colleges and universities did not grant
degrees to women.
• Professional journals were reluctant to publish
their work.
• Teaching positions were often closed to them.
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Where Are The Women?
• Today women receive more than half of the
Ph.D.'s granted in psychology.
• They perform key research in all of the
psychology subfields.
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Human Diversity
• Today, understanding human diversity is
essential.
• Psychologists have begun to examine
assumptions based on gender, race, and
culture.
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Gender Stereotypes
• The study of gender similarities and
differences has become part of mainstream
psychology.
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Feminist Psychology
• The most important research findings from
the past were based on all-male samples.
• Gender difference studies tend to focus on
the extremes of gender differences.
• Many issues that were not important to male
researchers were not studied.
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Sexual Orientation
• Origins of sexual orientation
• Brain differences between heterosexual and
homosexual men
• Impact of gays and lesbians serving in the
military
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Race and Ethnicity
• Most ethnic minorities are still
underrepresented among the ranks of
psychologists.
• New APA programs are in place to attract
ethnic-minority students to psychology.
• Psychologists have developed a better
appreciation for the unique challenges faced
by individuals from various ethnic
backgrounds.
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Culture
• Culture provides modes of thinking, acting,
and communicating about how the world
works and why people behave as they do
• Culture influences
– Beliefs and ideals
– Interpretation of the meaning of natural events,
human actions and life itself.
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Research Methods in Psychology
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Research Methods
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Naturalistic Observation
Case Studies
Surveys
Correlational Research
Experimental Research
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Naturalistic Observation
• Observing and recording the behavior of
humans or animals in their natural
environment
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Naturalistic Observation
• Advantages
– can observe what occurs before and after target
behavior
– insight into the important factors to study
– no artificiality of the laboratory
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Naturalistic Observation
• Disadvantages
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less control over variables
cannot imply causality
observer bias and subject reactivity
target behavior only occurs once
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Case Studies
• Intensive description and analysis of a single
individual or just a few individuals.
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Case Studies
• Advantages
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rich description of an individual
each individual serves as own control
no large groups of participants
no random assignment
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Case Studies
• Disadvantages
– generalizability is decreased by small sample size
– the individual being studied may be an exception
– observer bias
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Surveys
• A research technique in which questionnaires
or interviews are administered to a selected
group of people.
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Surveys
• Advantages
– large quantity of information
– relatively inexpensive
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Surveys
• Disadvantages
– respondents may not be representative
– response biases
– truthfulness of responses
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Correlational Research
• A research technique based on the naturally
occurring relationship between two or more
variables.
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Correlational Research
• Advantages
– description and prediction possible
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Correlational Research
• Disadvantages
– no control over variables
– cannot imply causality
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Experimental Method
• A research technique in which an investigator
deliberately manipulates selected events or
circumstances and then measures the effects
of those manipulations on subsequent
behavior.
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Experimental Research
• Independent variable:
– The variable that is manipulated by the
experimenter to test its effects
• Dependent variable:
– The variable that is measured to see how it is
changed by the independent variable
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Experimental Research
• Experimental group:
– The group subjected to a change in the
independent variable
• Control group:
– The group not subjected to a change in the
independent variable
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Experimental Research
• Advantages
– conclusions about causality can be made
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Experimental Research
• Disadvantages
– more ethical considerations
– behavior is constrained to laboratory
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Importance of Sampling
• Sample:
– Selection of cases from a larger population
• Random sample:
– Each potential participant has an equal chance of
being selected
• Representative sample:
– The characteristics of the participants corresponds
closely to the characteristics of the larger
population
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Ethics and Psychology
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APA Ethical Guidelines For
Human Subjects
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Informed consent must be documented
Awareness of possible risks
Limitations on confidentiality specified
Limitations on the use of deception
Equitable alternatives must be offered if
course credit is given for participation
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APA Ethical Guidelines For
Animal Subjects
• Researchers must ensure “appropriate
consideration of the animal’s comfort, health,
and humane treatment.”
• Animals may not be subjected to “pain,
stress, or privation” when an alternative
procedure is available.
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Careers in Psychology
• Psychology is one of the most popular majors
in colleges and universities.
• A background in it is useful in a wide number
of fields because so many jobs involve a basic
understanding of people.
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Careers in Psychology
• Careers for those with advanced degrees in
psychology include:
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Teaching
Research
Jobs in government and private business
A number of occupations in the mental health field
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Careers in Psychology
• Opportunities in the mental health field
depend on one's degree of training.
– Psychiatrist which requires medical training;
– Clinical psychologist, which involves getting a
doctoral degree;
– Counseling psychologist and social worker.
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