Download Exploration

New Monarchs
and
Exploration
Characteristics of the New Monarchies
• Guarantee law and order
• Hereditary monarchy is the most
legitimate form of public power.
– Tolerated no resistance
• Support of the urban middle class
– Final decline of local power of feudal
nobles
• Centralized government
– National Laws
– National Taxes
– National Church
More Characteristics
•
•
•
Reduced power of clergy
Lack of “hereditary” rights for most
Reduced emphasis on “common law”
– Law derived from statutes and
constitutions instead of judicial
decision
– “What pleases the prince has the force
of law”– Monarchs have the authority to
make laws
• Made the middle classes more powerful
– Their wealth helps stabilize the economy
– They demand political power
Examples of New
Monarchies
England (Tudors)
France
Spain (Phillip II)
The Divine Right of Kings
• Rule by the will of God, not the will of the
people, a parliament, or other nobility.
• Any attempt to restrict the powers of a
monarch is contrary to the will of God
• A king cannot be removed due to
“misrule”
• Tradition goes back to St. Augustine: a
monarch is appointed by God to protect
the “City of Man”
• Monarchs believed they were “God’s
representatives on earth.”
The Tudors
Henry VIII
• Annexed Wales in
1535
• Catholic property
taken by Henry
• Various Acts of
Succession
– 3rd Act (1543): puts
Mary and Elizabeth in
line behind Edward
and any further
children by Henry
Sir Thomas More
Humanist, Catholic
Author of “Utopia”
Convicted of Treason
because he refused to
support Henry’s divorce
from Anne.
Executed 1534
Thomas Cranmer: “Unity without
Uniformity”
• Author of “10 Articles” –
Main points of the new
Church
• Wrote the Book of
Common Prayer
• Executed as a heretic by
Mary Tudor
– She wanted to reconcile
Church of England with
Roman Catholicism
Archbishop of Canterbury
for Henry and Edward
The Wives
•
•
•
•
•
•
Katharine of Aragon
Anne Boleyn
Jane Seymour
Anne of Cleves
Katharine Howard
Katharine Parr – outlived Henry
Edward Tudor
• 1537-1553
• King at 9 years old
– England ruled by greedy
advisors
• Anglo-Scottish wars
• Enclosure Movement began
• Protestant reform
– Act of Uniformity: 1549
• BCP is sole form of worship in
England
• Anti-Catholic notes
Lady Jane Grey
• Gr. Grand-daughter
of Henry VII
• Father in law is an
advisor to Edward
– Manipulates marriage
to place his son and
Jane on the throne
• Ruled for 9 days in
1553
• Executed by Mary
Tudor
Mary Tudor
• Catholic, crushed Protestant
rebellion
– Executed 300 “Bloody Mary”
– Unpopular: repealed laws
passed by Edward
– Heretics killed, property
returned to Church
– Protestant rebels rally around
Elizabeth
• Plantation of Ireland to
solidify claim
• Married to her cousin, Phillip
II of Spain (age 37)
– No children
– Unpopular marriage
• 1558-1603
• Religious settlement
of 1559
– Act of Supremacy
• E. is supreme
governor of the
Church of England
– Act of Uniformity
• Church attendance
required
• But some
consideration given
to Catholic elements
of the new Church
Elizabeth I
Mary, Queen of the Scots
• Became queen of
Scotland at 6 days old
(1542)
• Was betrothed to
Edward Tudor, her
cousin
• Alliance fell apart and
Mary married the future
French king (no
children)
• Later married for love
• Valid claim to the English
throne after Elizabeth
• Catholic. Faced religious
war in Scotland.
– Calvinists vs. Catholics
• Married Lord Darnley (who
also had a claim to the
English throne).
– Their child inherits a
strong claim
– Eventually James I of
England
• Captured by disloyal troops,
imprisoned, executed for
treason against Elizabeth
after 18 years
Mary Stuart
Mary I of
Scotland
Father:
James V of
Scotland
Paternal
Grandfather:
James IV of
Scotland
Paternal
Grandmother:
Margaret Tudor
Paternal Greatgrandfather:
James III of Scotland
Paternal Greatgrandmother:
Margaret of Denmark
Paternal Greatgrandfather:
Henry VII of England
Paternal Greatgrandmother:
Elizabeth of York
Mother:
Mary of Guise
Maternal
Grandfather:
Claude, Duke of
Guise
Maternal Great-grandfather:
René II, Duke of Lorraine
Maternal
Grandmother:
Antoinette de
Bourbon
Maternal Great-grandfather:
François, Count of Vendôme
Maternal Greatgrandmother:
Phillipa of Guelders
Maternal Greatgrandmother:
Marie de Luxembourg
The Scottish Inheritance
• Elizabeth will die without an heir
• Some branches of the family are not
acceptable heirs:
– Catholics
– Relatives of Lady Jane Grey
• The Scottish King, James VI, is the only
reasonable alternative
England –
James I
James VI of Scotland, James I of
Great Britain
• 1603-1625
• The True Law of Free Monarchies
– Divine right of kings
• Dissolved parliament many times
• Sold titles to raise money
– Favored “new” nobility – more loyal
– Denied privilege to “old” nobility – tied to
past and primarily Catholic
• Religious troubles
– Puritans want more reform
– Religious tolerance: permitted Catholicism
in England and Calvinism in Scotland
England – Court of the Star Chamber
• TUDOR ERA: law court beginnings as
meetings of the king’s royal council
• Heard appeals from lower courts
– Cases of public disorder
– Property rights – especially land related
– Public corruption
– Trade and government
• Could order torture, prison and fines, but not
the death sentence
Court of the Star Chamber
• STUART ERA: power grew
– Tool of the king -- misuse and abuse of
power
– James I and his son Charles used the court
to:
• suppress opposition to royal policies
• try nobles too powerful to be brought to
trial in the lower courts
• Secret sessions, no right of appeal, punishment
was swift and severe to any enemy of the
crown.
• Abolished in 1641
France
in the
15th–
16th
centuries
France
• Becomes less feudal, more centralized
– Strong, absolute monarchy
– Divine Right of Kings
• Rise of the Valois monarchs
The Valois Dynasty in France
Louis XI – the “Spider King”
• Born 1423- Died 1483 (Ruled
from 1461)
• Ousted own father from power
• Removed power from nobles,
clergy to enhance his power
• Beginnings of strong French
state
– Large army to secure
borders
– Taxes
• Revenue used to
purchase political
support
“His Majesty” Francis I
• 1494-1547 (Ruled from 1515)
• “Absorbed” last independent
fiefdoms (Burgundy)
• French -- official language
• State councils greater power than
Church councils
– Estates General – never called
– King’s Council – ruled on
justice, taxes, military
– Counseil des Affaires
• Small advisory group
• Clashed with the Parlement
de Paris –weakened
Provincial parlements owe
loyal to king
Francis and Finances
– Taxes
• Taille: direct tax on people and property.
Doubled.
• Gabelle: salt tax. Tripled.
• Why? Palaces and wars were extremely
expensive
• 1542: Rebellion over Gabelle
– Raised revenue:
• Sold crown jewels
• Sold crown lands
• Sold political offices
Francis and Religion
• Early Reformation: Francis was tolerant of
Protestants
– Reformers in Paris are condemned by
Parlement; therefore, Francis supports
them
• Concordat of Bologna
– 1516. Francis can appoint 600 church
offices
– Increases king’s power
– Diluted power of Parlement de Paris
Henry II
• Married Catherine de
Medici
• Wars with Austria (in
Italy)
• Liberate Italy from
Charles V
• 1559: Wars shift to the
Low Countries
• Henry loses
– Must relinquish claims
to Italy
• Gruesome death
Long-term
affair with
Diane de
Poitiers
Francis II
• Married Mary Stuart
• France hopes to gain
control of Scotland through
Mary.
• Their children will have a
claim to France AND
England (through Mary)
• King at 15
• Dead at 16
Charles IX and Henry III
• Charles – King at 10, dead at 24
• Physically weak, Mother claimed he was
crazy
•
•
•
•
Henry – Favorite of Catherine de Medici
Well Educated
No Children
Assassinated by a Catholic Monk
The End of
the Valois Kings . . .
The Beginning of the Bourbon Kings
Huguenots: Protestants in France
• 1562 = French Wars of Religion
– Partly dynastic struggle between Bourbon and
Guise
• St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre – 1572
– 1000’s killed in Paris, 100,000 in countryside
• Edict of Nantes – 1574
– Henry IV grants equality between C. and H.
– But . . . no new H. churches
• Edict of Fontainebleau – 1685
– Revokes Nantes
Henry IV
1553-1610
“Paris is
well worth
a mass”
• A Huguenot
• Catholic League attempted to
deny his claim.
– Catholic League: “Ultra
Catholics”: the Pope and
Phillip II
– Elizabeth I supported him
• Converted to Catholicism
during Wars of Religion
• Edict of Nantes: offered
religious toleration for French
Protestants
France: Royal Council
• Appointed by the king from among the
following:
– Princes of the Blood (the most senior
nobles)
• Everyone descended directly from the
Capet line of kings (from 900 AD)
– Senior prelates
• “prelate” = preferred member of the clergy
Sets up a system of unequal
representation
French Parlement
• Court of appeals – ruled on king’s
laws on a local level.
• Francis I began selling the right to be
on a parlement.
• Became a hereditary position
France: Estates-General
• Estates-General was an assembly of
the different classes of French society
• Only gathered when the king saw
benefit (to raise taxes, for example)
England and France -- Differences
• England: stability
– Parliament has some control over king
• France: constant warfare and long-lasting
effects from the 100 Years War left a sense of
instability
– No unity of purpose
– King used representatives in the
provinces to govern for him (parlements)
– Local traditions, ancient privilege still
played an important role, even though
kings reduced the roles of nobility and
clergy
Empire of Charles V
The Habsburg Dynasty
Charles V
• 1500-1558
• Most powerful man
in Europe
• Abdicated in 1559
• Habsburg Empire
split in 2
Structure of the Holy Roman
Empire
• Voltaire: “Neither holy, nor Roman, nor
an Empire”
• Cross between a state and a religious
confederation
• No strong unity
• Dwindling power
• Leaders chosen by Princes (Electors)
• Eventually becomes a Hapsburg hereditary
title
Charles V: Religious Problems
• Rift in the Church
– Diet of Worms – 1521
– Peasant’s War – 1524-26
– Schmalkaldic League
– Council of Trent – 1545
• Beginnings of the Counter-Reformation
– Peace of Augsburg – 1555
• Each prince chooses his religion
Charles and Spain
Several domestic problems
– Because he ruled so much of Europe, his
Spanish subjects distrusted him
• Mostly an absentee ruler
– nobles attempted to gain power
– Charles appointed friends and relatives to
powerful positions in Spain
• Demands more money from Spain to
finance war against France and Ottomans
• Revolt is inevitable
Charles V: Political and
Economic Problems
• Wars with France
– Italian Wars
• War with the Ottoman Empire
– Turks press westward, nearly to Vienna
Kingdoms of Spain: 1492
Ferdinand & Isabella of Spain
• Reconquista – Since the Muslim invasion,
Catholics pushed out Moors and Jews (mostly
middle class)
• Two types of Conversos:
– Moriscos: New Christians of Moorish origin.
• Moors were given the choice to become
Catholic or leave Spain for North Africa
– Marranos: Spanish Jews
• Secretly maintained ancestral traditions
• Many leave Spain for Venice and Ottoman
Empire
Inquisition
• Inquisition -- Keeps Spain Catholic, not
Protestant
– Keeps out modern ideas, reform
– Targets conversos, especially Jews
• Begins anti-Semitism in Europe
• 4000 Jews murdered in Portugal
• 1509: Germany begins persecuting Jews
• By 1600, Spain as a nation begins to decline
– As wealth from New World increases, less
attention is paid to nation-building.
Phillip II of Spain and Portugal
1526-1598
Son of Charles V
International problems
– With Netherlands: Revolt
– With France: Joined the Pope in French Wars of
Religion (1562)
– With England (1588): Spanish Armada, death of
Mary Stuart
– Ottoman Empire
• Control of the Mediterranean
– Turks finally defeated at
Lepanto in 1571
The Empire of Phillip II
Phillip II and Domestic Problems
– Spain is still not truly united
• Each province has its own Cortes –like
France -- Inefficient government
– Agriculture: de-emphasized farming,
leading to reliance on food imports
– Middle/Lower classes pay taxes, upper
classes and clergy are exempt
– Industry suffers, due to high taxes
– Spain becomes dependent on revenue
from the New World
– Economy falters
El Escorial 1563-1584
•
•
•
•
Baroque
Monastery
Art Museum
Royal Apartments
Phillip II and the Spanish
Armada -- 1588
• 130 ships, 30,000 men
• Sent to eliminate
English support for
Spanish territory in the
Low Countries
• Discourage attacks on
Spanish possessions in
the New World
• Supported by the Pope –
Why?
Elizabeth Speaks to the Navy
August 8, 1588
“I have come amongst you as you see, at this time,
not for my recreation and disport, but being
resolved in the midst and heat of the battle to
live or die amongst you all, to lay down for
my God and for my kingdom, and for my people,
my honour and my blood, even in the dust. I
know I have the body of a weak and feeble
woman, but I have the heart and stomach
of a king, a king of England.
The Battles
• Cadiz: Before ships even set sail, Drake sails to
Spain and sinks Spanish ships!
• Gravelines (near Flanders). Why sail there first?
– Only 3 Spanish ships sank
– 2000 Spanish deaths, only a few hundred
British
– Spanish ships still a threat as they attempt to
retreat
• “Protestant Wind”
– Armada must sail around northern England
– Storms – most ships wrecked
• 5000 Spanish dead
• No English ships lost
– Remainder of fleet returns to Spain
The Growth of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
• Peak of Power: Invaded Constantinople in 1453
• Dominant naval force in the Mediterranean until
1571
• Helped evacuate Muslims and Jews from Spain
– Various ethnic groups could exist side-by-side
• Economic alliance with France
– Common enemy: Charles V
– France could trade within the Ottoman Empire
without taxation
The Decline
• Decline: Part 1
– Naval superiority challenged by
Europeans with modern technology
• Lepanto 1571
– Two long wars: Persia and AustriaHungary (war on two fronts)
– Inflation leads to severe domestic
problems – especially rebellion
• Decline: Part 2
– Long, slow decline
The Battle of Lepanto, 1571
• Ottomans vs. Holy League
(Venice, Portugal, the
Hapsburgs, Spain, Papal
States)
• Significance: Signals end
of Ottoman superiority in
the Mediterranean
• Ottoman Casualties
– 9,000 dead
– 30,000 wounded
– 137 ships captured
– 50 ships sunk
Commercial Revolution
1500-1700
• Roots in Middle Ages (Hanseatic
League)
• Population of Europe increases 20
million between 1500 and 1600. More
consumers than ever.
• States wanted to increase their
economic power – trade flourishes
• The middle class encourages capitalism
Commercial Revolution
• Banking
– Germany, Antwerp, Amsterdam become
centers for economic activity (Loans)
• Chartered Companies
– State-run monopolies in certain areas
• British and Dutch East India
Companies
• Very powerful: own navies, armies,
soldiers
• Joint Stock Companies
– Investors pool resources for a common
purpose
Commercial Revolution
• Enclosure Movement (England)
– Wealthy landowners enclose land
– No longer can any man graze his livestock just
anywhere
– Forces poorer classes to seek jobs
• Cottage Industry
– Small-scale production of textiles at home
– Work with a middle-man
• New Industries
– Cloth, lace, mining, printing, ship building
• New consumer goods
– Sugar, rice, tea, tobacco
The Lacemaker,
Jan Vermeer,
1669
The Fuggers
• Ambitious German
banking family
• Jakob Fugger
– Loaned money to
Charles V to
purchase his
election as Holy
Roman Emperor
over Francis I of
France.
Capitalism
• Economic system
– Means of production are mostly privately
owned
– Capital (money) is invested in the
production, distribution, and trade of
goods and services for profit.
– Developed in Europe between the 16th and
19th centuries
– The Western world's dominant economic
system
Mercantilism
• Main Idea: There is only a fixed amount of wealth
in the world. All nations are in competition for a
share of it.
• Goal: nations want a self-sufficient economy
• Strategy: create balance of trade that favors
exports over imports
– Take resources from colonial areas
– Produce finished goods, export
• Bullionism: acquire as much gold and silver as
possible
– Nations did not want all their valuable gold
flowing to another nation
Significance of the
Commercial Revolution
• Gradual transition from rural to urban
• Peasants in western Europe can improve their
economic and social condition by taking jobs
• Wealth can be taxed
– This funds public works
• Taxes also help fund exploration
• The “Price Revolution” causes even more to be
produced
Price Revolution
• Increasing population > increasing need for goods >
increasing prices
• Inflation stimulates production
– producers can get more for their money due to
increased demand
– Increases wealth
– Consumers don’t have a choice, must pay higher
cost if they want/need the product
• Middle class increases status with increase in
wealth
• Peasant farmers: can sell excess crops for a higher
profit
• Nobility: standard of living decreases (their income
from rent and taxes cannot change rapidly)
Middle Classes – the
“Bourgeoisie”
• First seen in Italian city-states
• Netherlands: Most powerful class (mostly
due to trade and banking)
• France: power grows at expense of nobility
• England: members of parliament, political
power grows
• “Richer” standard of living
– More variety in food (including “exotic”
items from trade
– Better housing, clothing, education
The Tulip: a status symbol
• Introduced by the Dutch in the
16th century (from Turkey)
• Wildly popular, very expensive –
the best status symbol
• In 1623, a single bulb of a famous
tulip variety could cost as much
as a thousand Dutch florins when
the average yearly income at the
time was 150 florins.
• Tulips were also exchanged for
land, valuable livestock, and
houses
• The Tulip market crashed in 1637
The Working Poor
• Unskilled laborers, unemployed,
unemployable, and paupers
• Illiterate
• Unpleasant, physically demanding, or
dangerous jobs
• English Poor Law of 1601
• The poor are seen as a public
nuisance
England: Poor Law 1601
• Relief for the poor funded through taxes
• Families were paid to take in orphans or
young children whose parents could not
afford to keep them
• Food and clothing was provided to those
unable to work (disabled, ill, old)
• Children were sent to be apprentices
• Able-bodied beggars were sent to jail
• Able-bodied poor were sent to a workhouse
– Housing, food in exchange for work
The Beggars, Pieter Brueghel, 1568
Peasant Wedding, Pieter Brueghel, 1568
Life in the 16th/17th Centuries
• Education or
wealth = moving up
the social ladder
• Rapid urban
population growth
slows by 1650
• Food and Diet:
– Poor rely on
bread
– Upper classes
have plenty of
cheese, meat,
sweets
Vermeer: “The Milkmaid” -- 1660
Life in the 16th/17th
Centuries
• Family Structure:
– Nuclear, patriarchal
– Lifespan among poor = 27 for men, 25 for
women
– Children work for parents
– Marriage delayed at this point until mid-late
twenties
Entertainment
Peasant Dance, 1568, Pieter Brueghel
Education in the 16th/17th
Centuries
• Elementary: reading (vernacular and Latin),
writing, arithmetic, religion
• Universal elementary schooling is the ideal, but
wars, insufficient resources, make this difficult
• Schools = instruments of social reform
• Secondary schooling: emphasis on Christian works
• Schools under church control
• Use of the vernacular – “real world” language
• Growth of Realism and Empiricism
– interest in observation of natural world
– scientific method
– gaining control over nature
– Francis Bacon, "Knowledge is power"
Eastern Europe in 1550
Eastern Europe
• Only the aristocracy benefits from the
commercial revolution
• Peasants gradually become serfs – tied to
the land and landowner
– Without a strong central government, the
local lord is the serfs ever know
– Cannot leave the manor, marry, or learn
a trade without the lord’s permission
– Owe at least 3-4 days of labor for the lord