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INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR MANAGERS Lecture – I (Information Technology For Managers) Darshan Bhattarai Counselor Introduction Academic Achievements M.B.A (Ace Institute of Management) B.E. Computer (Himalayan Whitehouse Int’l College) Professional Achievements Manager-Project Analysis, Employees Provident Fund ERP Implementation Consultant, Ace Institute of Management ERP Implementation Consultant, Ace School, Ace High School Sr. System Officer-Software, Employees Provident Fund IT Manager cum Consultant , Premier Int’l School IT Manager cum Consultant, Radha Engineering Lecturing Experience Ace Institute of Management Lord Buddha Education Foundation International Centre for Academics Ritz Hospitality Management College © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Lets Revise the Basics Data Information Technology Information Technology Information System Business Management Managers © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Information System •People – end users and IS specialists •Hardware – physical devices and materials used in information processing including computer systems, peripherals, and media •Software – sets of information processing instructions including system software, application software and procedures •Data – facts or observations about physical phenomena or business transactions •Network – communications media and network infrastructure © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Business And IT Information Technology though may not be the core of lot of business. It is a key component for aforementioned business purpose: High speed, accurate and efficient Computation Line of communication Storage, Retrieval and Access to Information Automate business processes Business Process Reengineering Strategic intervention Business Intelligence Project Management © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Key Information Systems Transaction Processing System (TPS) Management Information System (MIS) Decision Support System (DSS) Expert System (ES) Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Supply Chain Management (SCM) Customer Relation Management (CRM) Project Management System © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Internet and its applications Electronic mail (Email) Electronic Commerce (e-Commerce) Cloud Storage Access to global information (Searching/Google) Communication (VoIP, IPTV, IP Telephony etc.) Borderless/Boundless Connectivity/Access Collaboration across several entity Global Reach to every single individual © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Computer Systems © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Computer Software Software is the general term for various kinds of programs used to operate and manipulate computers and their peripheral devices. Software, consisting of programs, enables a computer to perform specific tasks, as opposed to the physical components of the system (hardware). © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Computer Software Computer Software Performs information performing tasks for end users Application Software General Purpose Application Programs Software Suites System Software Application Specific Programs Business – Accounting System Management Programs Operating Systems Manages and supports information of computer systems and networks System Development Programs Programming Web Browsers Transaction Processing, CRM, Network Management Programs Language Translators Electronic Mail ERP, e-Commerce, etc. Database Management Systems Programming Editors Word Processing Science and Engineering Application Servers Database Managers Education, Entertainment, etc. System Utilities Presentation Graphics Personal Information Managers Performance and Security Monitors © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA and Tools Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE) Packages Basic Functions of Operating System © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Operating System contd.. The User Interface. The user interface is the part of the operating system that allows you to communicate with it so you can load programs, access files, and accomplish other tasks. Three main types of user interfaces are the command-driven, menu-driven , and graphical user interfaces . Resource Management. An operating system uses a variety of resource management programs to manage the hardware and networking resources of a computer system, including its CPU, memory, secondary storage devices, telecommunications processors, and input/output peripherals. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Basic Functions of Operating System File Management. An operating system contains file management programs that control the creation, deletion, and access of files of data and programs. File management also involves keeping track of the physical location of files on magnetic disks and other secondary storage devices. Task Management. The task management programs of an operating system help accomplish the computing tasks of end users. The programs control which task gets access to the CPU and for how much time. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Language Translators Computer programs consist of sets of instructions written in programming languages that must be translated by a language translator into the computer’s own machine language before they can be processed, or executed, by the CPU. Programming language translator programs (or language processors ) are known by a variety of names. An assembler translates the symbolic instruction codes of programs written in an assembler language into machine language instructions, whereas a compiler translates highlevel language statements. An interpreter is a special type of compiler that translates and executes each statement in a program one at a time, instead of first producing a complete machine language program, as compilers and assemblers do. Java is an example of an interpreted language. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Programming Language Programming Languages. Programming languages are a major category of system software. They require the use of a variety of programming packages to help programmers develop computer programs and language translator programs to convert programming language instructions into machine language instruction codes. The five major levels of programming languages are machine languages, assembler languages, high-level languages, fourth-generation languages, and object– oriented languages. Object-oriented languages like Java and special-purpose languages like HTML and XML are being widely used for Web-based business applications and services. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Open Source Software The concept of open-source software (OSS) is growing far beyond the Linux operating system. The basic idea behind open source is very simple: When programmers can read, redistribute, and modify the source code for a piece of software, the software evolves. People improve it, people adapt it, people fix bugs. The open-source community of software developers has learned that this rapid evolutionary process produces better software than the traditional commercial (closed) model, in which only a very few programmers can see the source. The concept of open source, admittedly, runs counter to the highly commercial (and proprietary) world of traditional software development. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Key Characteristics of OSS The license shall not restrict any party from selling or giving away the software as a component of an aggregate software distribution containing programs from several different sources. The program must include source code and must allow distribution in source code, as well as compiled form. The license must allow modifications and derived works and must allow them to be distributed under the same terms as the license of the original software. The license may restrict source code from being distributed in modified form only if the license allows the distribution of patch files with the source code for the purpose of modifying the program at build time. The license must not restrict anyone from making use of the program in a specific field of endeavor. The rights attached to the program must apply to all to whom the program is redistributed without the need for execution of an additional license by those parties. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Network Technologies Network means an interconnected or interrelated chain, group, or system. When computers are networked, two industries—computing and communications—converge, and the result is vastly more than the sum of the parts. Suddenly, computing applications become available for business-to-business coordination and commerce, and for small as well as large organizations. The global Internet creates a public place without geographic boundaries—cyberspace—where ordinary citizens can interact, publish their ideas, and engage in the purchase of goods and services. The impact of both computing and communications on our society and organizational structures is greatly magnified. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Network Component Categories © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Business Value of Network Technology © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Role of Intranets Businesses are installing and extending intranets throughout their organizations to Improve communications and collaboration among individuals and teams within the enterprise; Publish and share valuable business information easily, inexpensively, and effectively via enterprise information portals and intranet Web sites and other intranet services; and Develop and deploy critical applications to support business operations and decision making © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Layered Architecture of Network © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Network Protocols ARP - Address Resolution Protocol DNS – Domain Name Service WWW – World wide web FTP – File Transfer Protocol Telnet SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol POP – Post Office Protocol © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Client Server Architecture Architecture of a computer network in which many clients (remote processors) request and receive service from a centralized server (host computer). Client computers provide an interface to allow a computer user to request services of the server and to display the results the server returns. Servers wait for requests to arrive from clients and then respond to them. Ideally, a server provides a standardized transparent interface to clients so that clients need not be aware of the specifics of the system (i.e., the hardware and software) that is providing the service. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR MANAGERS Lecture – 2 (Information System-I) Darshan Bhattarai MIS perspective MIS refers broadly to a computer-based system that provides managers with the tools for organizing, evaluating and efficiently running their departments. However MIS doesn’t Solely mean a computing System. The three sub-components Management, Information and System - together bring out the focus clearly & effectively. System emphasizing a fair degree of integration and a holistic view; Information stressing on processed data in the context in which it is used by end users; Management focusing on the ultimate use of such information systems for managerial decision making. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Objectives of MIS Facilitate the decision-making process Collects information in a systematic and a routine manner. Provide requisite information at each level of management to carry out their functions. Highlighting the critical factors to be closely monitored Provide a system of people, procedures, query facilities for collecting, storing, retrieving and transmitting information. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA MANAGEMENT CONTROL OPERATIONAL CONTROL TRANSACTION PROCESSING © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA TOP PROCESSING MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES STRATEGIC PLANNING INFORMATION FINANCE PERSONNEL LOGISTICS MARKETING PRODUCTION MIS Framework © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Value and Costs of Information Different Methods to assess the net benefit of the Information System/Technology 1. Cost Benefit analysis (Total Cost of Ownership) Identification of IT Costs Direct Costs Indirect Costs (Human , Organization) Identification of IT benefits 2. 3. 4. 5. Return on Investments (ROI) Earning Growth Market Share Customer Awareness Satisfaction © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Systems Concept in MIS The major concept of the systems involves basically the pattern or a way in which one thinks about managing optimally. System acts as the framework for the visualization and analyzing of the internal as well as the external environments and factors that affect these particular environments in a very integrated pattern. The features defining the system usually act as its boundaries, so it can be said that the system is inside the boundary and the environment is outside the boundary. Each system is further made of the sub systems, which further consist of the other subsystems © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Characteristics of the System A System must be having or possessing the following characteristics – System receives inputs with the help of the information, energy or the materials. System processes inputs and also produces outputs or the results. System has a particular structure. System is very much interdependent in the nature. System has an objective orientation. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Information system security Information system security refers to the way the system is defended against unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, perusal, inspection, recording or destruction. There are two major aspects of information system security: Security of the information technology used - securing the system from malicious cyber-attacks that tend to break into the system and to access critical private information or gain control of the internal systems. Security of data - ensuring the integrity of data when critical issues, like natural disasters, computer/server malfunction, physical theft etc. arise. Generally an off-site backup of data is kept for such problems. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA The ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct Strive to achieve the highest quality, effectiveness, and dignity in both the process and products of professional work. Acquire and maintain professional competence. Know and respect existing laws pertaining to professional work. Accept and provide appropriate professional review. Give comprehensive and thorough evaluations of computer systems and their impacts, including analysis and possible risks. Honor contracts, agreements, and assigned responsibilities. Improve public understanding of computing and its consequences. Access computing and communication resources only when authorized to do so © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Information System Security Ethics in Information Society Information Rights, privacy and freedom in an Information Society Protecting computer equipment and files Limiting logical access to computer systems Disaster Recover Plan Hardware backup Software backup Computer Virus and its prevention © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR MANAGERS Lecture – 3 (Information System-II) Darshan Bhattarai Information in managerial Functions Top level Managers Middle Level managers Line managers © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Information Source : The Internet © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Information System in Management Operation Support System Transaction processing systems. Process data resulting from business transactions, update operational databases, and produce business documents. Examples: sales and inventory processing and accounting systems. Process control systems. Monitor and control industrial processes. Examples: petroleum refining, power generation, and steel production systems. Enterprise collaboration systems. Support team, workgroup, and enterprise communications and collaborations. Examples: e-mail, chat, and videoconferencing groupware systems. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Information System in Management Management Support Systems Management information systems. Provide information in the form of pre-specified reports and displays to support business decision making. Examples: sales analysis, production performance, and cost trend reporting systems. Decision support systems. Provide interactive ad hoc support for the decision-making processes of managers and other business professionals. Examples: product pricing, profitability forecasting, and risk analysis systems. Executive information systems. Provide critical information from MIS, DSS, and other sources tailored to the information needs of executives. Examples: systems for easy access to analyses of business performance, actions of competitors, and economic developments to support strategic planning. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA System Development :: Strategic Planning Process S.N. Planning Process Development Process 1 Initiation 2 System Concept Development 3 Planning 4 Requirement Analysis System requirement analysis 5 Design System Design 6 Development System Development 7 Integration and Testing 8 Implementation 9 Operational Maintenance 10 Disposition System Initiation Implementation and testing System maintenance © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Information Systems in Functional Areas and decision-making © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Transaction Processing System © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA HRM © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Account and Finance © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Operation/production Management © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Marketing © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Integration application © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR MANAGERS Lecture – 4 (System Analysis and Computer Languages) Darshan Bhattarai Types of Information System Office Automation System Provides individuals effective ways to process personal and organizational business data to perform office processes Communication System Help people work together by sharing information Transaction Processing System (TPS) Collect and store the information about the transaction Management Information System (MIS and EIS) Convert TPS data to information for control and management Decision Support System Provide information, model or analytic tools for decision making Execution System Directly supports the organizations for a value added service © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Office Automation System Facilitates everyday information processing tasks Includes as a wide range of tools like spreadsheets, word processors, and presentations package Helps perform record keeping, writing and calculations etc Text and image processing systems Personal database systems © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Communication Systems Teleconferencing Messaging System Groupware Intranet and Extranets Knowledge management © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Transaction processing System Transaction processing systems capture and process the detailed information necessary to update data on the fundamental operations of an organization. Batch versus Real time processing In a batch processing system, transactions are accumulated over a period of time and processed as a single unit, or batch. For example, a store may update its sales records every day after the store closes. In a real-time processing system, transactions are processed immediately as they occur without any delay to accumulate transactions. Real-time processing is also referred to as online transaction processing, or OLTP. In this case, the records in the system always reflect the current status. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Outsourcing of Information System Advantages Disadvantages Economy Loss of control Service Quality Vulnerability of strategic Information Predictability Dependency Flexibility Trustworthiness Making fixed costs variable HR related efficiency © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Ensuring Quality with Information System Information system aiding Total Quality Management Setting stricter benchmarks using information system Customer centric to improve products / services Reduce Cycle time Improve quality and precision of the design Include line employees in quality process design Increase precision of production © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA System Analysis and Design © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Systems Life Cycle Oldest and formal approach of building systems method for building information systems and is still relevant today Stages of the systems life cycle Systems analysis Feasibility analysis Establishing information requirements Systems design Logical and physical design Design alternative Implementation and maintenance Programming Testing Conversion Production and maintenance © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Computer Programming and Languages Several Programming Concepts of programming languages Identifiers Variables Constant Expression Arithmetic operator (*, /, +, -) Relational operator (=, <, >, <=, >=, <>) Logical operator ( NOT, AND, OR, XOR) Built in Data Types, Statements © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Control Statement or structure Branching or selection statement If – then – else Looping or iterative statement Do-while For, Jump Statement Goto © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Overview and features of Java Important feature of Java Compiled and interpreted Compiler translates the source code into bytecode instruction and the interpreter therefore converts the bytecodes to the machine code Object oriented Almost everything in a Java is an object Distributed It has ability to share both data and programs and can access remote objects on internet as easily as on local machine Multi threaded Handles multiple tasks simultaneously. i.e. need not to wait one program to finish to start the other. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR MANAGERS Lecture – 4 (System Analysis and Computer Languages) Darshan Bhattarai Database Resource Management STUDENT DATABASE DATABASE Unique ID Course File Financial File Personal History File FILE RECORD COURSE FILE NAME COURSE DATE GRADE Anjana Chhetri Prajay Shrestha Uchata Rana MIS 101 MIS 101 MIS 101 F07 F07 F07 A+ C A+ NAME Uchata Rana COURSE MIS 101 FIELD Uchata Rana ( NAME field ) BYTE 01010101 ( letter U in ASCII ) BIT 0 or 1 DATE F07 GRADE A+ Storage capacities are measured in kilobytes (KB), megabytes (MB), gigabytes (GB), terabytes (TB). CHARACTER In computer industry, K represents 1,024 storage positions. E.g.: 1 MB = 1024 KB © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Components of DBMS DML Pre Compiler DDL Compiler File Manager Manages structures and space of file on the disk Disk Manager Provides block or page that the file manager asks for. Data Manager/Database Manager Software component for DBMS for database control Query Processor Takes care of the queries by the database user. Data Dictionary Contains information / data about the data © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Data Models Hierarchical Models © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Data Models Network Models © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Data Models Relational Models © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA E-R Diagram © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Database Administrator and the Role Database administration is the function of managing and maintaining database management systems (DBMS) software. Database administration work is complex, repetitive, timeconsuming and requires significant training. Since databases hold valuable and mission-critical data, companies usually look for candidates with multiple years of experience. Role of Database Administrator Designing, Implementing, and maintaining the database system Establishing policies and procedures pertaining to the management, Security, maintenance, Use of the database management system Training employees © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Data Warehouse Relational Models © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Characteristics of Data Warehouse Subject-orientation Data are arranged and optimized to provide answers to questions coming from diverse functional area within a company Time-variancy Represents flow of data through time Non-volatility Once data are entered they are never removed Integration Centralized, consolidated database that integrates data derived from the entire organization © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Components of Data Warehouse © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Metadata It stores data about data in the data warehouse Types of Metadata Operational Metadata contains all information essential to be able to relate to original data set. Extraction and transformation Metadata Data about the extraction of data from the source system and business rules for data extraction. End-user Metadata Navigation map of the data warehouse © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA OLAP (Online analytical Processing) Online analytical processing enables managers and analysts to interactively examine and manipulate large amounts of detailed and consolidated data from many perspectives. OLAP involves analyzing complex relationships among thousands or even millions of data items stored in data marts, data warehouses, and other multidimensional databases to discover patterns, trends, and exception conditions. An OLAP session takes place online in real time, with rapid responses to a manager’s or analyst’s queries, so that the analytical or decision-making process is undisturbed. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Data Mining Data mining is a major use of data warehouse databases and the static data they contain. In data mining, the data in a data warehouse are analyzed to reveal hidden patterns and trends in historical business activity. This analysis can be used to help managers make decisions about strategic changes in business operations to gain competitive advantages in the marketplace. Data mining can discover new correlations, patterns, and trends in vast amounts of business data (frequently several terabytes of data) stored in data warehouses. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Data Mining Applications Customer Segmentation Market Basket Analysis Risk management Fraud Detection Delinquency Tracking Demand Prediction © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Data Mining Process/Project Define Business Objectives Prepare Data Perform data mining Evaluate Results Present Discoveries Ensure Usage of Discoveries © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA INFORMATION SYSTEM FOR MANAGERS Lecture – 6 (Tactical and Strategic Information System) Darshan Bhattarai Decision Support System The type of information required by decision makers in a company is directly related to the level of management decision making and the amount of structure in the decision situations they face. Structured decisions involve situations in which the procedures to follow, when a decision is needed, can be specified in advance. Unstructured decisions involve decision situations in which it is not possible to specify in advance most of the decision procedures to follow. Most decisions related to long-term strategy can be thought of as unstructured. Most business decision situations are semi-structured; that is, some decision procedures can be pre-specified but not enough to lead to a definite recommended decision. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Key Aspects of DSS DSS are information System DSS are used by the managers DSS are used in making decisions DSS are used to support, not replace people DSS are used when decision is semi-structured or unstructured DSS incorporates databases DSS are incorporates models © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Difference between MIS and DSS © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Information board © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Component of DSS Decision interface /DGMS DSS modeling Software Information/ Knowledge base Database © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA So what is DSS A decision support system (DSS) is a computer program application that analyzes business data and presents it so that users can make business decisions more easily. It is an "informational application" (to distinguish it from an "operational application" that collects the data in the course of normal business operation).Typical information that a decision support application might gather and present would be: Comparative sales figures between one week and the next Projected revenue figures based on new product sales assumptions The consequences of different decision alternatives, given past experience in a context that is described A decision support system may present information graphically and may include an expert system or artificial intelligence (AI). It may be aimed at business executives or some other group of knowledge workers. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA A.i. [Artifical Intelligence] Artificial intelligence (AI) is an area of computer science that emphasizes the creation of intelligent machines that work and react like humans. Some of the activities computers with artificial intelligence are designed for include: Speech recognition Learning Planning Problem solving © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA AI Goals Of AI Emulate Human Solve problems that require intelligence Develop Expert Systems on Real-life problems Enhance Interaction Applications of AI Scheduling and Planning Automated operations Speech Recognition Expert Systems Vision System © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Key Approaches in Building an AI Knowledge Representation and Reasoning Representation for fact and logic Heuristic Search Rules of thumb to solve the constraints in the problem space. Inference Ability to infer some new rules from some facts Learning Parametric, inductive and analogy-based learning Planning Determination of a methodology for achieving a goal from the initial stages. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Expert System Expert Systems are computer programs that are derived from a branch of computer science research called Artificial Intelligence (AI). AI's scientific goal is to understand intelligence by building computer programs that exhibit intelligent behavior. It is concerned with the concepts and methods of symbolic inference, or reasoning, by a computer, and how the knowledge used to make those inferences will be represented inside the machine. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Advantages of Expert System Availability: Expert systems are available easily due to mass production software. Cheaper: The cost of providing expertise is not expensive. Reduced danger: They can be used in any risky environments where humans cannot work with. Permanence: The knowledge will last long indefinitely. Multiple expertise: It can be designed to have knowledge of many experts. Explanation: They are capable of explaining in detail the reasoning that led to a conclusion. Fast response: They can respond at great speed due to the inherent advantages of computers over humans. Unemotional and response at all times: Unlike humans, they do not get tense, fatigue or panic and work steadily during emergency situations. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Neural Networks Neural networks are a popular target representation for learning. These networks are inspired by the neurons in the brain but do not actually simulate neurons. The first important thing to understand then, is that the components of an artificial neural network are an attempt to recreate the computing potential of the brain. The second important thing to understand, however, is that no one has ever claimed to simulate anything as complex as an actual brain. Whereas the human brain is estimated to have something on the order of ten to a hundred billion neurons, a typical artificial neural network (ANN) is not likely to have more than 1,000 artificial neurons. © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA Emerging trends in IT Competitiveness of ICT Technology for convergence Ip Centres VPN SIP Convergence of IT and Consumer electronics E-Commerce Privacy in Context of E-Commerce © Darshan Bhattarai (Information System For Managers)- MBA