Download Anterior muscles

ANATOMY
Human anatomy:-is the study of the structure of the body.
The body consist of :1. Head &neck.
2. The trunk: 1)thorax
contain lung &heart.
2)abdomen
upper part(liver, spleen, digestive system.)
lower part(pelvis: rectum, bladder&
reproductive system.)
3. Four limps: upper limp:1)arm. 2)forearm. 3)hand. 4)finger.
Lower limp:1)thigh. 2)leg. 3)foot. 4)finger.
Anatomical position:Consider the body at standing position with the arms handing by the side &
the palm of the hand facing forward.
Terms used to describe anatomical position:1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Anterior.
Posterior.
Inferior.
Medial.
Lateral.
Proximal.
Distal.
External.
Upper.
Surface of the body
 Plane.
 Line.
 (imagine line).
A. Vertical planes:1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Median plane.
Anterior median line.
Posterior median line.
Mid clavicular line.
Median line of arm.
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6. Median line of lower limp.
7. Axillary lines:- a)anterior.
b)posterior.
c)mid axillary line.
B.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Horizontal plane:Transpyloric plane.
Sub costal plane
Inter tubercular plane.
-:‫تقاطع الخطوط العمودية الترقوية مع األفقية يقسم البطن إلى ست مناطق هي‬
Right &left hypochondrial region.
Epi gastric region.
Right &left lumber region.
Umbilical region.
Right &left iliac region.
Supra pubic region.
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Bones and skeleton
Skeleton:it’s consist of a group of different bones attached to each other to formed
&keep the body on standing position on his feet.
Types of bones:1. Long bone.
2. Short bone.
3. Flat bone.
4. Irregular bone.
5. Pneumatic bone.
1. Long bone:-are found in the limps, this bone composed of a tubular
shaft of compact &spongy bone with a central medullary cavity contain
bone marrow the ends of this bones is spongy. Found in
i. Femur
ii. Radius
iii. Metatarsal
2. Short bone:- it’s consist of thin cortical layer surrounding the spongy
bone. It’s found in carpal &tarsal bone.
3. Flat bones:- it’s consist of two layer of compact bone between layer of
spongy bone. It’s found in skull &scapula.
4. Irregular bone:- consist of thin compact layer surrounding spongy
bone. It’s found in vertebrae &some skull bones.
5. Pneumatic bones:- In skull bone have cavities contain air called sinus.
The function of skeleton:1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Keeping the body straight up ward.
Carrying the body weight.
Source the ca++.
Formation of the blood cell in the bone marrow.
Protect the internal organ.
It’s provide attachments for muscle &ligaments.
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Skeleton of the upper limp
Skeleton of the upper limp: It’s consist of 4types of skeleton:1. Skeleton of shoulder girdle.
2. Skeleton of upper arm.
3. Skeleton of forearm.
4. Skeleton of hand.
1.skeleton of shoulder girdle:A. Clavicle:- two bones, left &right present at the upper part of the chest
at the root of the neck. It consist of body &two ends. The body is curved
in shape.
The two ends: 1)lateral end
articulate with scapula.
2)medial end articulate with sternum.
B. Scapula:- is large flattened triangular bone lying on the postero-lateral




aspect of the chest &extend from 2nd to 7th ribs.
The spine of scapula divide the posterior surface into two
 Supra spinous fossa
 Infra spinous fossa
The lateral end of spine is extend &flattened to form acromial process
The scapula has three border: Superior
 Medial
 Lateral
The scapula has three angle: Superior
 lateral
 inferior
glenoid cavity at the lateral angle
articulate with the head of
humerus.
2.skeleton of upper arm:humerus:- longest- strongest &biggest of upper arm consist of :
I.
II.
III.
Upper end which is rounded &articulated with glenoid fossa forming
shoulder joint.
Shaft
extend between the upper & lower ends the upper part of the
shaft is cylindrical &the lower part is triangular in shape.
Lower end articular ulna
Radius
non articular
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3.skeleton of forearm:1. radius bone :- is the lateral of two forearm has upper &lower
end
styloid process
2. Ulna:- longer than radius &lies medial to it.
Upper end 1.coronoid process
Between trochlear notch
2.olecranon process
Trochlea of humerus articulate
Lateral of the coronoid process there’s radial notch radio – ulnar joint.
Lower end – small than separated by shallow groove.
Shaft – extend between upper &lower ends.
4.skeleton of hand:I.
The Carpal bones(wrist):- 8 bones in two rows proximal & distal from the
lateral.
Proximal:
scaphoid
The lunate
triquetrum
pisiform
Distal:
trapezium
trapezoid
capitate
hamate
II. The Metacarpal bone:- 5bones , 1stone articulate with thumb.
III.
The phalanges:- short long bone 3phalages for finger &two for the thumb.
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Skeleton of lower limp
A-The hip bones:Each hip bone is composed of three bones.
1. The Ilium
2. The pubic
3. The ischium
The two hip bones together with sacrum make up the pelvic girdle, which
connect lower extremities with the trunk.
1.the Ilium:it’s the biggest bone of the hip bones, it’s have two ends &three surfaces.
the upper end extend to form a border “called iliac crest”.
The lower end formed the upper part of acetabulum ,for the hip joint.
*The three surfaces are:
gLuteal surface
Iliac fossa
Sacro- pelvic surface
2.The pubic:has a body& two ramus. The body lies anteriorly &articulate with that of the
opposite side at the pubic symphasis .the superior ramus run laterally from the
body to take a part in the formation of the acetabulum &the inferior ramus
runs down ward to meet inferior ramus of ischium.
3.the ischium:is the lowest portion of the pelvis. It’s have a body which joints the lower part
of acetabulum. The superior ramus project down ward on the body to form
ischial tuberosity on which the weight of the body is born when sitting. Inferior
ramus of ischiam raise for ward to meet the inferior ramus of pubic enclosed a
large opening called obturater foramen which is covered during life by
membrane.
Acetabulum:It’s deep-cup shaped articulate with head of femur &it’s composed of parts of
three bones & it’s have acetabular notch.
*pelvis in female is heart in shape to facilitate a born
B-bones of thigh:The femur: it’s the longest bone of the skeleton; it has upper &lower end &
cylindrical shaft.
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The upper end consist of:I.
II.
head
spherical, covered with cartilage extend upper medial ward.
neck
connect the head with shaft the neck make an angle of
about 1250 with the shaft .
III. Greater trochanter
it’s a process extend upper to the shaft end &
laterally to the neck.
 Trochantric fossa
it’s a fossa between the neck &greater
trochanter.
IV. Lesser trochanter
it’s found postero-medial posteriorly between
the trochaters is a intra trochanteric crest.
The shaft:- it’s cylindrical in shape in posterior aspect, there’s line aspira
these line are divided at the lower oart of the body to form two border
Medial supra- condylar ridge
lateral supra- condylar ridge
lower end:- consist of two process called medial & lateral condyle these two
process connect together to form inter-condylar notch.
the patella:- it is a sesamoid bone in the tendon‫ وتر‬of quadriceps femurs
muscle, it’s triangular in shape articulate posteriorly with patellar surface of
the femur . the muscular tendon extend to the tibial tuberosity known patellar
ligament.
C-Bones of leg:1.Tibia:- it’s long bone it’s consist of upper &lower ends with shaft.
A-The upper end articulate with femur to from knee joint, it’s have two
process called medial &lateral condyle, the upper surface of these two process
are covered by cartilage, these two condyle articulate with condyle of femur,
between these articulated surface there is cartilage called
1. Medial semi lunar cartilage.
2. lateral semi lunar cartilage.
The surface inferior the lateral condyle articulate with fibula, these two
condyle extend anteriorly to meet tibial tuberosity which the patellar ligament
attached. Posteriorly there is a notch called posterior inter condyle area.
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B-the shaft:- it’s triangular in shape, except the lower part which is rounded,
have three border & three surface.
The surface are:
1. anterior.
2. medial.
3. Lateral.
The border are:
1. anterior.
2. medial.
3. Lateral.
*the lateral border
interosseous border
C-Lower end:- it’s concave in shape articulate with talus bone, take a part
information of ankle joint, there is a prolongation from medial side called
medial malleolus & there is a fibular notch on lateral side to articulate with
fibula.
2.Thefibula:- it has upper & lower end & shaft.
A-Upper end
called head &articulate with tibia.
B-Lower end
lateral malleolus projects.
It has two articulated surface: medial
articulate with tibia.
Inferior
articulate with talus.
The shaft is long to which attached of several muscle &the interossous
membrane which binds tibia &fibula together.
D-bones of foot:1. The tarsal bone: 7 bones in two rows superior &inferior
 Inferior row have two bones called
a) Talus (upper)
 Superior row have four bones called
a) Medial cuneiform bone
c) Lateral cuneiform bone
b) Calcaneus (lower)
b) Inter medial cuneiform bone
d) Cuboid bone
 The 7th bone is navicular bone, it’s lie between the inferior & superior
rows from the medial side.
2. Metatarsal bone: they are 5 bones, from the medial side the first one.
The first 3 bones articulate with the three cuneiform bone &the other 2
are articulate with cuboid bone.
3. The phalanges: there are two in a great toe & three in other four toes.
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the vertebral column
It’s the central axis of the body &consists of irregular bones called vertebrae. It
protects the spinal cord &supports the weight of the head & trunk.
1. Seven cervical.
4. Five sacral.
2. Twelve thoracic.
5. Four coccygeal.
3. Five lumber.
Typical vertebrae:- consist of
1. Rounded body anteriorly with flattened upper& lower surface.
2. Vertebral arch posteriorly. Which consist of two pedicles
3. Vertebral foramen occupied by spinal cord.
4. Transverse process.(two) one in each side.
5. Spinous process(one posteriorly).
6. Articular process(four, two in each side inferior &superior articular process).
The cervical vertebrae:The seven cervical vertebra differ from the basic plan &it’s found in first two.
*First cervical vertebrae is called the atlas, it has an anterior arch in place of body.
*Second called axis has projecting up wards from the body called odontoid process.
The chief characteristics of cervical vertebrae:1. The bodies small &oval.
2. The arch is large.
3. The transverse process has a foramen in which the vertebral artery runs.
4. The spinous process of the first six vertebrae is bifid at the tips.
The thoracic vertebrae:-(2 in number)
1. Bodies are heart in shape, they articulate from both side with heads of ribs.
2. The spinous process is long &down ward directed.
3. The transverse process is articulate with tubercles of the ribs.
The lumber vertebrae(5 in number)
1. The bodies are large & wide.
2. The vertebral foramen is triangular in shape.
3. The spines are quadrangular &project back ward.
The sacrum:The sacrum is triangular in shape &consist of five vertebrae fused into one bone.
The coccyx:The coccyx is small triangular bone composed of four rudimentary vertebrae.
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The thoracic cage
The thoracic cage:- it’s composed of bones &muscles, the bones consist of
twelve thoracic vertebrae posteriorly & the sternum anteriorly &the encircling
ribs. Between the ribs there are inter costal muscle & separating the thorax
from abdomen is the diaphragm.
The sternum:- it forms the middle portion of anterior wall of the thorax
&consist of three parts:
The manubrium: is triangular bone which articulate with the clavicles, on
either side of its upper border the manubrium articulate with the body at
sterna angle, at this level the 2nd costal cartilage lie.
The fist costal cartilage at the lateral aspect of manubrium below the clavicles.
The body:- is long &narrow &articulate with manubrium at the second costal
cartilage below these it’s articulate with3rd,4th,5th,6th,7th,costal cartilage.
The xipoid:- is the smallest &lowest piece of the sternum it may be
cartilaginous or bony.
The Ribs:- they are 12th ribs, articulate posteriorly with thoracic vertebrae&
arched around the thorax to connected (the 7th Ribs) to the sternum.
The 8th,9th,10th, ribs have cartilage attached to each other &join the 7th costal
cartilage. The 11th,12th Ribs are floating ribs.
The anterior end is concave to facilitate the connection with cartilage.
The posterior have head, neck, tubercles, to facilitate articulation with thoracic
vertebrae.(costal vertebrae joint).
Between the ribs are the inter costal space which are occupied by the inter
costal muscles, nerves, blood vessels.
*there are two types of ribs:1.True ribs:- it include the first seven ribs which connect with sternum directly
from the anterior end by costal cartilage.
2.false ribs:- it include all the false ribs which is the lower five ribs & it is two
types: A-false floating ribs.
B-false non floating ribs.
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The skull
The skull:- it’s consist of groups of bones attached to each other by
sutures which make these connection very strong & with out movement.
The skull consist of two main parts.
1. Mandible
2. Cranium
The cranium consist of
calvaria box of cranium
Base of skull
Facial bone
1. The mandible:- it’s consist of body which arch like convex from out
side, this body have two border inferior which can by catch it by hand
&superior border which called (alveoli process)which carry the tooth of
mandible.
 The Rami:- it’s two, one of them left & the other right attached to the
end of bone arch &extend up ward in a postero- lateral directions.
 Condylar process:- it’s extend from up ward posterior to the rami
consist of head & neck.
the head formed the (tempro –mandibular joint )
 Coronoid process:- it’s triangular in shape, it’s base connect with
upper anterior side to rami.
2. The cranium:I. Calvaria.
II. Skeleton of the face
I. Calvaria:- it’s the part of skull consist of two parts superior(box of
the skull) inferior(base of the skull).
 Box of the cranium:- consist of these bones.
a) Frontal bone: it’s formed the upper part of cranium.
b) Parietal bones: they formed upper- middle part of cranium &attached
to each other by sagittal suture.
c) Temporal bone: they extend at the sides of cranium.
d) Occipital bone: it’s found at the upper posterior part of cranium at
posterior side of base.
e) Ethmoid bone: it’s found in anterior middle part of base.
f) Sphenoid bone: it’s found in the base of cranium.
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 Base of skull:- have three fossa each one lie posterior &down ward the
fossa which before it.
1. Anterior cranial fossa, It’s contain the frontal lobe of brain.
The bone which formed this fossa are
Ethmoid bone
Frontal bone
Sphenoid bone
(bri form plate)
(Orbital plate)
(lesser wing)
2. Middle cranial fossa, it's contain pituitary gland
the bone which formed this fossa are
Sphenoid
Sphenoid
Temporal bone
(body)
(great wing)
3. Posterior cranial fossa,it’s contain:cerebellum,pons,medulla oblongata
The bone which formed this fossa.
Occipital
Sphenoid
Temporal bone
(body)
II. Facial bone(skeleton of the face):1. Maxillary
2. Nasal
3. Zygomatic
4. Lacrimal
5. Inferior conchae
6. Vomer
7. Palatine bone
8. Mandible
Nasal sinuses:- they are cavities neighborhood to the nasal passage lined by
mucus membrane. &they formed from
1. Frontal sinus.
3. Ethmoidal sinus.
2. Maxillary sinus.
4. The two sphenoidal sinuses.
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The joints
The joints:- the joints are articulation occur when two or more one meet.
They are classified as fibrous, cartilaginous &synovial.
I. Fibrous joints:1. No significant movement.
2. Example: the suture of skull, inferior tibio-fibular joint.
II.
Cartilaginous joints:1. Allow a slight amount of movement.
2. Fibro cartilaginous plate between the to bone end.
3. At the external surface there’s ligament which connect the bone.
4. Example: the pubic symphasis, between the bodies of the
vertebrae(intra vertebral disk are situated).
III.
Synovial joints:
1. Free range of movement.
2. The articular surface of the bones are covered by hyline cartilage.
The joint are surrounded by a ligament capsule.
3. The bone in the joint covered with synovial membrane.
4. The joint contain synovial fluid.
5. Example: all the joints of extremities.
Joints of upper limp:1. Sterno-clavicular joint(synovial)
Sternum &clavicle.
2. Acromio-clavicular joint
Acromial process of scapula with clavicle.
3. Coroco-clavicular joint
Coracoid process of scapula+ clavicle.
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Joints of upper limp:1. Shoulder joint(scapula +humerus).
2. Elbow joint(humerus +radius &ulna).
3. Radio-ulnar joint(radius +ulna).
4. Wrist joint(radius +scaphoid +lunate bone).
5. Intracapal joint.
6. Carpo-metacarpal.
7. Metacarpo-phalangeal joint.
8. Inter phalangeal joint.
Joints of pelvic girdle:1. Sacro –iliac joint(iliac +sacral vertebrae)(synovial).
2. Joints between the pelvic girdle:
a) Pubic symphasis (cartilaginous joint),it’s articulation between the
two pubic bones.
b) The articulation between the three hip bones are(cartilaginous
joint).
3. Hip joints(synovial joint)between femur &hip bone
Joints of lower limp:1. Knee joint (synovial between femur &tibia.)
2. Tibio-fibular joint
a) Superior joint(synovial
b) Inferior (fibrous joint).
3. Ankle joint(synovial)tibia &fibula with talus.
4. Inter-tarsal joint.
5. Tarso-metatarsal joint.
6. Metatarso-phalangeal joint.
7. Inter phalangeal joint.
Joints of the trunk:1. Inter-vertebral joint(cartilaginous joint).
2. Costo-vertebral joint.
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The muscular system
Muscular system of head &face:
1. Muscles of expression.
2. Muscles of mastication.
3. External muscle of eye ball.
Muscles of expression:
These muscles are responsible for all face expression in different action these
muscles are controlled by facial nerve ‫هذه العضالت تكون مسؤولة عن التعابير المختلفة‬
‫للوجه وتقع تحت سيطرة العصب الجبهي(العصب القحفي السابع)وتشمل‬
a) Muscles of scalp.
b) Muscles of face.
A)muscles of scalp:-(occipito-frontalis)
Its consist of two parts:
1. frontal belly
2. Occipital belly
B)muscles of face:1. Platysma muscle.
2. Buccinator muscle.
3. Orbicularis oris muscle.
4. Orbicularis occuli muscle.
--platysma muscles
extend upper part of chest &the anterior part of
neck until the lower part of the face.
--buccinator muscles
it’s important muscle in bucal help in mastication
movement.
muscles of the neck
A. Anterior muscles.
1. Super
2. Deep m.
facial m.
B. Posterior muscles.
1. trapizius
2. deep m.
3. orbicularis
4. orbicularis
oris m.
occli m.
A. anterior muscles of neck:1.super facial muscles: They consist of
i.
ii.
iii.
platysma muscle.
Sterno-cliedo-mastoid muscle.
Supra hyoid muscle.
iv.
Infra hyoid muscle.
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2.deep muscles:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Scalene muscle cervical vertebrae 2nd-3rd ribs.
Pharyngeal muscle surround the pharynx.
Laryngeal muscle
Anterior muscles of vertebral column
--Sterno- cliedo-mastoid muscle:-extend from upper to lower side in oblique
direction, connect from upper side by temporal bone from down side connect
the manubrium.
--supra hyoid muscles:-upper the hyoid bone it’s formed the base of mouth,
it’s connect the lower jaw or the tongue or hyoid bone, it’s seen when
swellwed &mastication &speak movement.
--infra hyoid muscles:-lower than hyoid bone connect from upper side by hyoid
bone &from lower side by manubrium.
B. Posterior muscles of neck:1. Trapizius
2. Deep muscle: connect skull or vertebrae.
3. Orbicularis oris: surrounded the mouth &formed the two lips help in
speak &eat &expression movement.
4. Orbicularis occuli: surround the orbit of eye &covered the frontal &
temporal
it’s work to close the eye to protect it from the external
effects.
Muscles of mastication
1. Temporalis muscle.
2. Masseter muscle.
They are group of muscles which work with each other to complete
mastication movement. It’s work are controlled by Trigeminal nerve.
External muscles of eye ball
1.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Recti muscles
Superior rectus m
inferior rectus m.
medial rectus m.
lateral rectus m.
2. Oblique muscles
I. superior oblique.
II. Inferior oblique.
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1. Recti muscles:-extend from common tendinous ring to seclara. &it’s
responsible for eye movement. The first three muscles are controlled by
occuto mator nerve.
The lateral rectus muscle is controlled by abducent nerve.
2. Oblique muscles:- the superior oblique muscle are found on the
upper medial side of orbit it’s controlled by trochlear nerve, it’s move
the eye ball inferior-lateral word. The inferior oblique muscle found in
the anterior border of the orbit, it’s move the eye ball
Muscles of the upper limp
Muscles of the upper limp:
It’s a group of muscle which move the upper arm &attached the upper arm
with shoulder girdle, vertebral column &thoracic cage it’s contain:1. Limp-vertebral m.(the upper arm with vertebral column).
2. Limp-thoracic m.(the upper arm with thoracic)
3. Muscles of shoulder.
4. Muscles of upper arm.
5. Muscles of forearm.
6. Muscles of hand.
1.limp-vertebral m.:
A. Trapezius m.
C. Rhomboid m.
B. Latissmus dorsi m.
D. Levator scapula m.
A.Trapezius muscle:It’s triangular muscle covered the posterior part of neck &back (upper part).it’s
attached by occipital bone &ligmentum nuclear &spinous process of seven
cervical vertebrae &all the spinous process of thoracic vertebrae.
It’s under the control of accessory nerve
It’s function:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Fixed the scapula.
Raise the shoulder &scapula.
Help to raise the arm up ward.
Move the two shoulder posterior.
Pull the head back ward.
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B. latissmus Doris muscle:
it’s large flat muscle, triangular in shape, covered the lumber region &the
lower part of back.
It’s under the control of nerve to latissmus Doris.
It’s function:
A.
B.
C.
D.
Adduction the humerus to trunk.
Help to move the am back ward.
Help in rotating the humerus.
Help in pulling the trunk up ward when hundling the body.
C.Rhomboid muscle:
It’s two muscles. They lie between the vertebral column &scapula.
It’s help in fixed of scapula &the movement of it.
D.Levator scapula:
It’s long muscle lie on the posterior-lateral aspect of neck.
2.limp-thoracic muscles:
It’s connect the upper limp with the anterior and lateral surface of the chest.
A. Pectoralis major triangular muscles covered the anterior part of chest
&connect the humerus by thoracic cage.
B. Pectoralis minor it’s smallest &covered by Pectoralis major muscles
connect the scapula with the thoracic cage.
C. Serratus anterior muscle it’s wide muscle at lateral side of chest. It’s
fixed the scapula.
3.muscles of shoulder:
It’s a group of muscles connect the humerus by (scapula &clavicle) it’s
contain:A. Deltoid m.
B. Sub scapularis m.
C. Supra spinatus m.
D. Infra spinatus m.
A. Deltoid m.: it’s super facial muscle .triangular in shape, it’s head down
ward, it’s lie on the anterior boarder of lateral part of clavicle, it’s under
the control of axillary nerve.
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B. Sub scapularis muscle: it’s deep muscle on the ribs surface of
scapula, it’s help to fixed the humerus in the glenoid cavity, &help in
medial rotation of humerus.
C. Supra spinatus muscle: it’s super facial muscle. Found on the supra
spinous fossa of scapula, it’s help in fixation of humerus in glenoid
cavity, &help in abduction movement of humerus.
D. Infra spinatus muscle: it’s super facial triangular muscle, found on
the infra spinous fossa, it’s help in fixation of humerus in glenoid cavity
&help in lateral rotation.
4.muscles of upper arm(humerus):
Anterior muscles
A. Biceps brachil: it’s connect scapula by two heads. These head extend
& meet at the middle of humerus &they end by tendon at radial
tuberosity. It’s rotate the forearm laterally &adduction of forearm to
humerus. It’s under the control of musculo-cutaneous nerve.
B. Coraco-brachialis muscle: it’s covered the upper medial part of
humerus, it’s lie on the carcoid process of scapula. It’s under the control
of musculo- cutaneous nerve.
C. Brachialis: anterior to elbow joint, help in adduction the forearm
under the control of musculo- cutaneous nerve.
D. Triceps muscle: covered the posterior part of humerus,
it’s have three head ‫الراس الطويل من لوح الكتف والراسان االخران انسي ووحشي‬
‫يرتكزان على الجزء الخلفي لعظم العضد وتمتد حتى‬
E. Anconeus: it’s triangular muscle connect from upper side by lateral
epicondyle from the lower part it’s connect the posterior part of ulna.
5.Muscles of forearm:
I.
Anterior muscles of forearm:A. Super facial muscle:- contain 5muscles attached from upper side by
medial epicondyle &from lower side by metacarpal &phalangeal bone.
1. Flexor Carpi radialis.
2. Palmaris longus.
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3. Flexor Carpi ulnaris.
4. Flexor digitorum super ficialis.
5. Pronator teres.
*under the control of ulner nerve &median nerve.
B. Deep muscle:
1. Flexor digitorum pro fundus.
2. Flexor pollicis longus.
II.
3. Pronator quadrates.
Posterior muscles of forearm:A. Super facial:1. Brachio radialis.
2. Extensor carpi radialis longus.
3. Extensor carpi radialis brevis.
4. Extensor digitorum.
5. Extensor digiti minimi.
6. Extensor carpi ulnaris.
*it’s work to extend finger + wrist
B. Deep muscle:It’s under the super facial muscle connect from upper side by posterior side
of ulna &lower by radius &lateral epicondyle.
It’s work in abduction of the thumb from other finger.
1. Extensor indicis.
2. Extensor pollicis brevis.
3. Extensor pollicis longus.
4. Supinator.
6.muscles of hand:
1. Thenar muscle.
2. Hupo thenar muscle.
3. Lumbrical muscle.
4. Interosseous muscle
20
Muscles of lower limp
Muscles of lower limp:- it’s divided into 5 groups
1.
2.
3.
4.
Muscles of the iliac region.
Muscles of the gluteal region.
Muscles of the femur.
Muscles of the leg.
5. Muscles of the foot.
1.muscles of the iliac region:These muscles are connect the iliac fossa or transverse process of lumber
vertebrae. Extend down ward to attach lesser trochanta.
It’s work are controlled by femur nerve it’s help in, flextion the femur &
rotating the femur medially
2.muscles of the gluteal region:They are 9 muscles, the important muscles are:
1. Gluteal maximus.
2. Gluteal medius.
Gluteal nerve
3. Gluteal minimus.
The function of these muscles:
1. Extension of femur.
2. Pull the femur back ward.
3. Rotating the femur medially.
3.muscles of the femur:
A. Anterior m.
B. Posterior m.
C. Medial m.
A. anterior muscles:1. quadriceps femoris: it’s controlled by femoral nerve &it have four head
ends by tendon meet in patella help in flextion of femur to trunk &
fixation of pelvis.
2. Sartorius: it’s long muscle extend on femur. It’s controlled by femur
nerve. It’s help in flextion of femur &thigh &help in rotating in femur
laterally.
B. Posterior muscles:They are three muscles called Hamstring muscles supplied by sciatic nerve
It’s attached from upper side by ischial tuberosity from lower side by:
1. Biceps femoris
fibula
21
2. Semi membranosus
tibia
3. Semi tendinosus
The wok in flextion of thigh&
C. Medial muscles:
It’s a group of muscles ,covered the median side of femur help in adduction
of femurs together.
1. Gracilis muscle.
2. Pectineus muscle.
3. Adductor muscle.
4.muscles of leg:
A. Anterior m.
B. Posterior m.
C. Lateral m.
A. Anterior muscles:1. Tibialis anterior muscle.
2. Extensor digitorum longus muscle.
3. Extensor hallucis longus muscle. *It’s connect from upper side by tibia &
fibula& attached from lower side by metatarsal bone& phalanges.
*These muscles are controlled by deep peroneal nerve.
B. Posterior muscles:The super facial muscle are:
1. Gastrocnemius muscle.
2. Soleus muscle.
These muscles are connect from upper side by tibia &fibula &from lower
side by calcaneus
The work flextion of leg. It’s work controlled by medial popleteal nerve.
C. Lateral muscles:1. Peroneus longus.
2. Peroneus brevis.
They controlled by super facial peroneal nerve. It’s work fixation of leg on
feet &help in eversion of the foot.
5.muscles of foot:
1. Pantar muscle
all found on the small finger.
2. Extensor digitorum brevis. found on dorsal side of foot.
22
Muscles of the trunk
1. Chest muscles
A. Super facial m.
I.Pectoralis
major
II.
Pectorali
s minor
III.
Serratus
anterior
B. Deep m.
I. Inter costal
m. ”it’s 22
muscles
between the
ribs”
II. Diaphragm.
Function of abdominal muscles:1. Protect the internal organ.
2. Respiratory movement.
3. Urination &elimination
4. Movement of body to anterior side.
5. Movement of body to right &left.
23
2. Abdominal muscles
I. Rectus abdominis.
II. External oblique.
III. Internal oblique.
IV. Transverse
abdominis.
V. Pyramidalis.
Digestive system
Digestive system: It’s long canal with irregular part. It’s help in digest food
&convert it to simple substance &then absorbed it to rele use it to blood fluid.
It’s consist of:
1. Mouth.
2. Pharynx.
3. Oesophagus.
4. Stomach.
5. Small intestine.
6. Large intestine.
The mouth:
It’s the widest part of digestive system cavity of mouth divided to two parts:
1. Real cavity
2. vestibule
Roof of mouth is divided to three parts:
1. hard palate.
2. Soft palate.
3. Uvula
The Salivary gland:
It’s gland found in mouth secret saliva which help in mastication.
1. Parotid gland.
2. Sub mandibular gland.
3. Sub lingual gland.
The Tongue:
Muscular organ covered by roof mucus membrane have papillae. On the
tongue there are taste buds.
The Teeth:
It’s bony structures have a blood &nerve supply found on the upper &lower
jaw help in mastication. Divided to
1. Temporary(20)
2. Permanent(32)
1.
2.
3.
4.
incisors.
canine.
premolars.
molars.
Four in each jaw
Two in each jaw
Four in each jaw
Six in each jaw
24
The Pharynx:
It’s muscular cyst covered from inner side by mucus membrane& it’s wall
consist of muscle called constrictors of pharynx supplied by accessory nerve.
The Oesophagus:
It’s a tubular structure, it’s wall consist of muscle covered by mucus membrane
it’s extend from the pharynx to the cardiac orifice of stomach.
The stomach:
It’s the widest part of the digestive tract, it’s found in the left upper part of the
abdominal cavity, it’s divided to three parts:1. Fundus: it’s the upper part of stomach on the left side of diaphragm.
2. Body of the stomach.
3. Pylorus.
Gastric orifice:
1. Cardiac orifice. it’s the internal to stomach.
2. Pyloric orifice. from it the digested food pass to duodenum. &have a
pyloric sphincter.
The stomach wall: consist of four layers
1.
2.
3.
4.
Peritoneum.
Muscular coat.
Sub mucus coat.
Mucus membrane.
The small intestine:
They extend from the stomach to the ilio caecal valve where it joins the large
intestine. It’s divided into:
1. Duodenum.
2. Jejunum.
3. Ileum.
The duodenum: this part lies on the posterior abdominal wall, it’s -C-in
shaped embracing the head of pancreas, it’s divided to four parts, at the
second part on median wall of it there’s duodenal papilla where the orifices of
the bile duct &pancreatic duct are situated.
The jejunum &Ilium: the jejunum start at the duodino-jejunal flexures &lies
in the umbilical region.
25
The large intestine:
It’s extend from the ilio-caecal junction to the anus &consist of:
1. The caecum: is a dilated pouch like structure into which the ilium
open, from it the appendix projects.
*The appendix is a worm-like structure it’s end blindly.
2. The ascending colon: lies in the right lumber region runs from cecum
to the transverse colon.
3. The transverse colon: it’s extend from hepatic to spleenic flexures.
4. The descending colon: it’s extend from spleenic flexures down ward
at the left lumber region to joint the pelvic colon.
5. The pelvic colon: it’s in the cavity of pelvis.
6. The rectum: it’s lie in the pelvis in front of sacrum &coccyx it is ened
by anal canal which surrounded by anal sphincters.
The liver:
It’s large organ, it’s irregular in shape. It’s base to the right &it’s apex to the
left. It’s divided into two lobes, large right lobe &small left lobe.
The liver structure is spongy in consistency &is enclosed with a thin fibrous
capsule.
The biliary apparatus:
It consist of the ducts through which the bile is transport &the gall-bladder
which concentrate
The gall-bladder: is appear-shaped organ. It’s attached to the under side of
the liver &it’s blind end.
The pancreas:
It’s lies on the posterior abdominal wall at the level of the first lumber
vertebrae. It’s consist of head, neck, body &tail. The head enclosed on three
sides by the duodenal loop. Behind it the common bile duct. the pancreatic
duct stars in the tail of the gland &runs to the right to enter the duodenum in
company with the common bile duct at the duodenal papilla.
26
The respiratory system
1.the
pharynx
2.the
larynx
3.the
trachea
4.the
bronchi
5.the lungs
6.the
pleura
1.The pharynx:
A. Naso pharynx
B. Oro pharynx
Naso pharynx lying above the soft palate. It’s communicate with middle ear by
Eustachian tube. In haled air pass from the naso pharynx to the oro pharynx
2.the larynx:
It’s the organ of voice production. As being an air passage, it’s lie between the
root of the tongue&the trachea in front of 3rd ,4th ,5th &6th cervical vertebrae.
The skeleton of larynx are cartilaginous &with in it the vocal cord laryngeal
cartilage.
I. Epiglottis
II. The thyroid
III. The cricoid
I. Epiglottis: is a leaf-shaped which project up ward in front of the
opening of larynx. It’s prevents food from entering the larynx during
swallowing.
II.
The thyroid: is the largest &consist of two lamina which fuse in the
mid line to form the “ADAM’S APPLE”.
III.
The cricoids: is smaller but stronger it’s lie posteriorly &the cartilage
completely encircle the larynx.
3.The trachea: it’s extend from the 6th cervical vertebrae to the 5th thoracic
vertebrae where it’s divided into two main bronchi. It’s consist of fibrous tissue
with-C-shaped cartilage.
4.The bronchi: they formed by the division of trachea &the pass to reach the
root of lung.
The right bronchi
run more vertical so the inhaled of foreign bodies are
more likely Accour in right lung. It’s give brunch to the upper middle &lower
lobe of lung.
The left bronchi
give brunch to upper &lower lobe of left lung.
*the bronchi are divided to bronchiole which terminate by irregular sac(alveoli)
through which the gaseous exchange accoure.
27
5.the lungs: these are two, spongy in structure, divided into lobes by fissures.
*the right lung divided into three lobes upper, middle &lower.
*the left lung divided into two lobes upper &lower.
6.the pleural: it’s a thin serous membrane lined the wall of thorax &covered
the lung:
I. Partial pleural lined the chest wall
Between them there’s plural cavity
II.
Visceral pleural covered the lungs
28
The urinary system
The kidney: are the secretory glands of the urinary system. it’s lie behind the
peritoneum on the posterior abdominal wall have convex lateral surface&
concave medial surface which contain hilum through which the renal vessels,
lymphatic’s &ureter pass.
The kidney are enclosed by fibrous capsule if the kidney are divided vertically
it will be seen to consist of outer part “cortex”& inner portion the “medulla”
which composed of serious pyramids &the third part which is renal pelvis.
where is urine collected.
The cortex consist of large number of malpignia balls, which are consist of :
I. Bowman capsule
II. Glomerulus
The pyramids are found in medulla &they are composed of collecting tubules
which drain the urine.
The ureters:
Each kidney connect to the bladder by ureter which is a muscular tube at it’s
upper end funnel shape pelvis. The ureter consist of abdominal &pelvis
portion.
The urinary bladder:
it’s lie in the pelvic cavity behind the pupis &in front of rectum in the male.
It’s a muscular organ lined by mucus membrane it’s capable to contain 400
cm3 of urine. There are thee opening into bladder one for each ureters& one
for the urethra which surrounded by internal sphincter.
The urethra:
In male:
It’s part of reproductive system it’s divided to three parts:
I. The prostatic urethra is surrounded by prostate gland.
The ejaculatory duct open.
II. The membranous part.
III. The penile part
In female: It’s lies anterior to the vagina.
29
The male reproductive system
The testes: are oval in shape &lie on each side of the secrotum in which they
are suspended by the spermatic cords. they are composed of seminiferous
tubule which enclosed by a fibrous capsule called tunica-albuginea.
A double layer of serous membrane called tunica vaginalis separates the testis
from the secrotum.
The function of testis is to produce spermatozoa &secretion of testosterone
which responsible for the secondary sexual characteristics.
The secrotum:
It’s a pouch composed of muscle &skin &it’s divided into two comparatment in
which testis lie.
The epididymes:
It’s lie on postero - lateral aspect of the testis. They transmit the seminal fluid
from the testis to the seminal duct.
The seminal ducts:
It’s begin at the lower poles of epididymus &run with spermatic cord to the
pelvis to join the seminal vesicle to form ejaculatory ducts which open into
prostatic urethra.
The spermatic cord:
It’s consist of vas deferens, testicular artery, a plexus of vein, lymphatics
&muscle.
The seminal vesicles:
These are glands lie on poster-inferior aspect of bladder &there secretion are
discharge via the ejaculatory duct.
The prostatic gland:
It’s a single mid line, it’s surrounded the upper part of urethra. It’s secretion
mixed with the seminal fluid in the prostatic urethra.
the penis:
this is the organ by which the semen is deposit to the female genital tract. It’s
composed of three structure
1. the two corpora caver nosa.
2. Corpus spongiosum.
30
The female reproductive system
The female genital organ:
I.
Internal organ.
II.
External organ.
I.INternal organ:
1. The ovaries
2. The uterus
1. The ovaries: are oval structure, lying on the lateral wall of the pelvis
cavity. Each ovary consist of fibrous tissue in which lie several thousands
is land of cells known as grafion follicles which contain ovum& secretes
hormone (estrogen).
2. The uterus : it’s divided into three parts:
a. Fundus
b. body
c. cervix
It’s situated between the bladder &rectum. It’s covered by double layer of
peritoneum which known as the broad ligament which connect the uterus
&uterine duct& ovaries.
The cervix have external orifice project in to the vagina.
The uterine tube:
The uterine tube(the fallopian tube)it’s a muscular tube lined by ciliated
columnar epithelium the fertilization of ovum by spermatozoa are usually
accoure in the fallopian tube.
The vagina: runs from external orifice of cervix to the vulva it’s lined by
skin moistened by mucus gland
* the lower end is partially closed by the hymen.
II.External organs:
1. The vulva
2. The breasts
1. The vulva:
Through which the urethra &vagina open.
2. The breasts:
They are accessory organs of reproduction &developed during puberty,
they are circular &contain much fat, they lies on the pectoralis major
muscle at the level of 2nd rib to 6th rib.
It’s consist of serious lobules in which lacti forus duct are run each duct end
in a nipple which is a small arised area surrounded by the pigment areola.
31
The circulatory system
The circulatory system: is made up of
1. The heart.
3. Veins.
2. The arteries.
4. Capillaries.
The heart:
Is the powerful muscular organ which pumps blood round the body.
It’s consist of 2 halves right &left, each half contain two chamber which
suprated by valve.
*The right side consist of right atrium
into which blood flows from the
systemic veins of the body. &the right ventricle through which the
pulmonary artery pass to the lung.
Between the atrium &ventricle there is tricuspid valve.
* the left side consist of left atrium
into which the pulmonary vein
carrying the blood from lung. &the left ventricle
from which the aorta
carrying the blood to the body.
Between the atrium &ventricle there is mitral valve.
*there are valves also at the origins of the pulmonary artery &aorta. They
consist of three flups of half moon shaped. The purpose of all these valve is to
prevent the flow of blood in the revers direction.
The aorta artery: is the largest artery, divided into:1. Ascending aorta
2. Arch of aorta
3. Descending aorta
1. Ascending aorta: pass up ward for ward &give brunches to coronary
artery.
2. Arch of aorta: give three brand
a. Innominate artery
b. The left
c. The left
I. Right
II. Right
common
sub clavian
sub
carotid
carotid
artery
clavian
artery
artery
3. Descending aorta: give brunch to bronchial arteries, oesophagus
&pericardium.
32
*the pulmonary artery & vein:
1. Pulmonary artery
a rise from right ventricle divided into right & left
to reach the hilum of right &left lung.
2. Pulmonary vein
there are two come from lung& entre left atrium
carrying the oxygenated blood.
Arteries of upper limp:
Axillary artery
this artery cross axilla & renamed brachial artery
Radial artery
ulner artery
They unite at the palm forming palmer arch from which the digital brunches
run to the fingers.
Arteries of lower limp:
1. Femoral artery
2. Popletial artery
 Anterior tibial artery.
 Posterior tibial artery.
Arteries of abdomen:
Abdominal aorta divided to two common iliac artery.
The chief visceral brunches are:
1. Coeliac artery
liver, stomach, pancreas, spleen.
2. Right &left renal artery
Kidney.
3. Inferior mesenteric
Large intestine.
4. Testicular male organ.
Ovarian
Female organ.
Common iliac arteries : divided into
1. Internal iliac artery
rectum, bladder, uterus.
2. External iliac artery
enter the thigh
Arteries of the head &neck:
Common carotid artery
 external
External carotid artery
Internal carotid artery
 internal
face, scalp, neck.
brain
33
Veins:
Veins of brain drains into large vessels to reach the internal jugular vein in the
neck to sub clavian vein to form the innominate vein.
Veins of upper limp:
Radial+ulna
join the axillary vein
The super facial vein
1. cephalic vein
2. Basilica vein
lateral side.
medial side.
Veins of lower limp:
Anterior
+tibial
popletial vein
femoral vein
posterior
Super facial vein:
Long saphenous vein
34
external iliac vein
The nervous system
The nervous system: there are separated nervous system in the body.
1. Somatic nervous system
a) Central nervous sys.
b) Peripheral nervous sys.
2. Autonomic nervous system
a) Sympathetic nervous sys.
b) Parasympathetic nervous sys.
THE SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:Central nervous system:It is the system which controls all the voluntary movement of the body. It
consist of the brain,& the spinal cord, &has 3coverings which protects from
outer strain, these coverings are:1. Dura mater.
2. Arachnoid mater.
3. Pia mater.
THE BRAIN:- it’s the centre which receives the different sensations to
differentiate it &keep it as large group in the brain making the memory. The
brain is consist of:
1. cerebrum
2. cerebellum 3. Brain stem. 4. Ventricules of the brain.
The brain stem consist of:
a) Mid brain
b) Pons
c) medulla oblongata.
1.Cerebrum:- it’s the largest part of the brain consist of two hemispheres
called the “cerebral hemispheres” lies in frontal &middle part of the skull.
The two hemispheres are connected together by a large bunch of nervous
fibrous called “the corpus callosum”. Each hemisphere devided into:I. frontal lobe. II. Parietal lobe. III. Occipital lobe.
IV. Temporal lobe.
Between these lobes, there are deep fissures, the most important are:I. Central fissure: between the frontal lobe &the parietal lobe.
II. Lateral fissure: between the temporal lobe &the parietal &fontal lobe.
III. Parieto-occipital sulcus: between the parietal &occipital lobes.
IV. Superior& inferior temporal sulci.
The cerebrum is divided into:A. Outer portion called “cerebral cortex”.
B. Inner portion which forms the largest part of the cerebrum.
35
A. cerebral cortex:this contain many gyri & has certain names,(the cerebral cortex) has many
functions &each part has a certain function, the important ones are:1. motor area on area 6,4.
2. Sensory area on area 3,1,2.
3. Visual area on area 17.
4. Auditory area on area 40,41.
B. inner part:consist of nervous fibrous either coming from the cortex or going to it, &
between these fibrous there are group’s of cell called as “ganglia” each
ganglion has a certain function, the most important ganglia are:1. basal ganglia: it controls the different movement of the body.
2. Thalamus: it receives the sensory bundles from different parts of the
body.
3. Hypothalamus: it has many functions:
- Hormonal secretion.
-Controlling the automatic nervous system.
-Controlling body temperature.
-Controlling the epitie.
Each hemisphere contains an irregular cavities called as
* lateral ventricules two in number.
* third ventricule.
* fourth ventricule.
2.cerebellum:- it lies at the posterior part of the skull. It consist of:A. Two hemispheres connected together by a connecting part.
B. Inner part consist of nerve fibrous, in between has cellular groups as
ganglia& an outer part contains the gyri & sulci.
The function of the cerebellum is to control the contractions & relaxations
of the muscles. The cerebellum has 3piars of peduncles:1) Superior peduncles.
2) Middle peduncles.
3) Inferior peduncles.
36
3.brain stem:it’s a structure has two parts, each part hold a hemisphere & called the
cerebral peduncle.
The brain stem consist of:A. Mid brain.
B. Pons.
C. Medulla oblongata.
A. mid brain:- it consist of the cerebral hemisphere with the Pons ,& contain
some of the nervous ganglia.
B. pons:- it’s a bridge like structure between the two cerebellar hemisphere
with the middle cerebellar peduncles.
C. medulla oblongata:- it lies at the posterior part of the skull, in front of
the cerebellum below the Pons & pass down ward to the foramen magnum to
continue with the spinal cord.
THE SPINAL CORD:- it lies at the vertebral canal starting from the foramen
magnum &ends at the lower surface of the first lumber vertebrae &it’s about
45cm.
Transverse section of the spinal cord:- It consist of two different areas:
 the grey matter.
 The white matter.
the grey matter which surrounds the central canal, &the white matter which
surrounds the grey matter, this arraignment is the opposite to what is seen in
the cerebrum & cerebellum.
37
Peripheral nervous system:This system contains the peripheral nervous which originated from the central
nervous system. these peripheral nerves, give stimuli to all parts of the body &
they are two types:
1. Cranial nerves:
2. Spinal nerves:
These are twelve pairs of nerves originated
These are thirty one
from the brain & perforate the skull through
pairs nerves
special openings to wards different somatic
originated from the
parts.
spinal cord passing
The cranial nerves are:
to all parts of the
1) Olfactory nerve.
body which
2) Optic nerve.
surrounds the spinal
3) Oculomotor nerve.
cord as the trunk,
4) Trochular nerve.
upper& lower
5) Trigeminal nerve.
limps.
a)ophthalmic nerve.
b)maxillary nerve.
c)mandibular nerve.
6) Abducent nerve.
7) Facial nerve.
8) Auditory nerve.
9) Glosso-pharyngeal nerve.
10) Vagus nerve.
11) Accessory nerve.
12) Hypoglossal nerve.
THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM:It controls the involuntary vital organs. It’s connected with the central nervous
system in some of the parts.
It controls the function of the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles of the
digestive canal, bladder &ureters, & a direct action on the glands of the body.
It consist of:1) Autonomic ganglia
2) Autonomic nerve fibers.
3) Autonomic plexus
The autonomic nervous system is divided into two systems:1. Sympathetic nervous system.
I. Sympathetic ganglia.
II. Sympathetic nerve fibers.
III. Sympathetic plexuses.
2. Parasympathetic nervous system.
I. Parasympathetic ganglia
II. Parasympathetic nerve
fibers.
38
These sympathetic ganglia are seen in groups in the following areas:1) Cervical sympathetic ganglia are 3 in number: upper, mid &lower.
2) Thoracic sympathetic ganglia are12 or11arranged as the spinal segment.
3) lumber sympathetic ganglia are 4in number arranged as the lumber
segment of the spinal cord.
4) sacral sympathetic ganglia are 4 or5 in number arranged according to
the sacral segment of the spinal cord.
the Parasympathetic ganglia are scattered all over the body &near the tissues
which supplies, so called the “collateral ganglia”.
This system has two different origins:A. cranial part:
B. sacral part:
contains the parasympathetic ganglia
contains the
which is scattered all over the body &the
parasympathetic
nerve fibers coming to the ganglia with
ganglia found in the
the following cranial nerve:walls of the bladder,
-occulomotor nerve.
uterus, rectum.
-facial nerve.
-vagus nerve.
39
The endocrine system
The endocrine system:- is made up of a number of glands whose
secretions or hormones pass directly into the blood stream.
the thyroid gland:- is situated in the neck in close relation ship with the
larynx& the upper part of the trachea at the level of the lower three cervical
&first thoracic vertebrae. It consists of two lobes which are joined by an
isthmus. The thyroid gland produces the hormone thyroxin.
The parathyroid glands:- these are small pear like structure, usually four in
number, which are embedded, two on each side, in the posterior aspect of the
lobes of the thyroid gland.
The function of the parathyroid gland :-is to secret a hormone parathormone
which plays a vital role in the regulation of the amounts of calcium &
phosphorus in the blood & bone.
The pituitary gland:The pituitary gland is of a great importance in the body for, in addition to
producing hormones which have a direct effect on tissues, it produces a
number of hormones which exert a controlling influence on other endocrine
glands.
It’s a single mid line structure about 1cm in diameter lying in the sella turcica&
connected to the brain by a stalk through which nerve tracts run to that part
of the brain known as the hypothalamus.
the pituitary gland is composed of an anterior &a posterior lobe, both of which
are hormone – secreting, &these are separated by a middle part which does
not appear to secret any hormones.
40
The function of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland is to produce the
following hormones:1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
growth hormone--- it is hormone influences the growth of tissues,
particularly the skeleton.
Thyroid --- stimulating hormone (T.S.H.) – it controls the activity of
the thyroid gland.
Adreno cortico trophic hormone (A.C.H.) --- It stimulates the cortex
of the adrenal glands to secrete hydrocortisone.
Prolactin --- it is parthy responsible for the production of milk by the
breast .
Follicle – simulating hormone (F.S.H) ---- F.S.H. is the female
stimulates the development of the grafian follicle &stimulates the
mature follicle to produce the oestrogen .
In the male F.S.H. stimulates the production of the spermatozoa .
Luteinizing hormone --- in the female it stimulates the formation of
the corpus luteum after ovulation &the secretion of the
progesterone by the corpus luteum. In the male it stimulates the
interstitial cells of the testis to produce testosterone .
The function of the posterior lobe of the pituitary glands is to produce the
following hormones:The antiduretic hormone (A.D.H) ---- it plays a vital role in the control of the
total amount of water in the body.
The supra renal gland:The Supra renal or adrenal glands are situated at the upper pole of each
kidney, they are related posteriorly to the diaphragm &anteriorly they form
part of the stomach bed.
Each gland consists of an outer part, “the cortex”, which surrounds the inner
part, “ the medulla”.
The function of the supra renal cortex is to produce Hydrocortisone &
aldosterone which affect the metabolism of water, minerals, carbohydrate,
protein &fat.
The function of the supra renal medulla is to secret two hormones
noradrenaline &adrenaline which have roughly similar actions.
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The special senses
The Eye ------------- (Sight):The organ of sight is the eye &it has various accessory structures which
include the eye brows, the eyelids, the conjunctiva, the lacrymal apparatus
It consists of three coats. the outer coat or sclera forms the white of the eye&
is a tough fibrous layer which gives the eye its shape &is transparent anteriorly
where it is called the cornea.
The middle coat or choroid is vascular &pigmented &is continuous with the
iris The inner most coat, the retina is continuous with the optic nerve &is
composed of nerve endings which are sensitive only to light.
The eye ball is divided into an anterior &a posterior chamber.
The posterior chamber is occupied by the transparent vitreous humour.
The retina consists of nerve –cell& is developmentally part of the brain.
The cones are used for vision in good lighting, conditions, where as the rods
are used for night vision.
The part of retina is divided of rods &cones &is called the blind spot.
The pupil is the most sensitive part, it’s called macula.
The conjunctiva is a very thin mucus membrane which lines the eyelids
&covers the cornea.
The lacrymal apparatus consists, on each side, of the lacrymal gland, a pair of
lacrymal ducts &leading from the inner part of each orbit to the inferior
meatus of each side of the nose, the naso lacrymal ducts.
The glands lie above the outer parts of the eyes.
The ear -------------- (hearing):The ear consists of the external, middle &internal ears &in addition to being
the organ of hearing it is concerned with the maintenance of the body’s
equilibrium.
The external ear:- consists of the pinna or auricle &the external auditory
meatus, abony &cartilaginous canal which leads to the middle ear but is
separated from it by the drum or tympanic membrane. The bony part of the
meatus lies between the petrous temporal bone above &the tympanic part of
the temporal bone below.
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The middle ear:- is a Narrow cavity in the petrous part of the temporal bone &
contains three tiny bones called the malluos (hammer).
The lateral wall is formed by the tympanic membrane& the medial wall is bony
but has two membrane covered apertures which separate it from the vestibule
above &the cochlea below.
The auditory Eustachian or pharyngo tympanic tube which connects the middle
ear to the pharynx opens into the anterior wall of the middle ear cavity &
enables the pressure in this cavity to be adjusted to that of the atmosphere.
The internal ear:- is the part of the ear concerned with balance as well as
hearing & consist of a number of communicating membranous structures,
namely the vestibule, the cochlea &the semicircular canals containing fluid
called endolymph.
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