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Unit 6 Vygotsky and Piaget:
Thought and Language
Skills focus
Reading
• locating key information in
complex sentences
Writing
• reporting findings from other
sources: paraphrasing
• writing complex sentences
Vocabulary focus
• synonyms,
replacement subjects,
etc. for sentence-level
paraphrasing
6.1 Vocabulary
6.2 Reading
6.3 Extending
skills
6.4 Extending
skills
6.1 Vocabulary
A Study the words in box a.
1 Copy and complete the table. Put the words in one or more boxes in each case.
2 Add affixes to make words for the empty boxes. (Some will not be possible.)
3 What is the special meaning of each word in psychology?
4 Find a synonym for each word.
6.1 Vocabulary
Noun
Verb
accommodation accommodate
A Study the words in box a.
Adjective
Psychology meaning
Psychology synonym
accommodating,
accommodated
(v) adaptation of the mind to receive
new information
(v) adjust, assimilate
accumulation
accumulate
accumulated
(v) build up, develop, collect
(v) acquire
acquisition
acquire
acquired
(v) to achieve new skills, get through
experience or effort
(v) gain, master
cognition
__
cognitive
(adj) related to thought, understanding, (adj) thought processes,
intelligence, knowledge
reasoning
construction
construct
constructive
culture
acculturate
cultural
development
develop
developed,
developing
(v) create, formulate,
imagine
(adj) related to social groups and shared (adj) collective,
traditions (v) to adapt to a culture
communal
(v) to build up understanding
(v) to gain understanding, knowledge
or skill
(v) evolve, mature
6.1 Vocabulary
Noun
Verb
A Study the words in box a.
Adjective
Psychology meaning
Psychology synonym
experimentation experiment
experimental
(v) to try out different theories
(n) test
mentor
mentor
mentored
(n) an experienced person who teaches
a novice (v) to teach
(n) teacher, guide, master
peer
peer
__
(n) a person belonging to the same
group as another
(n) equal, companion,
co-learner
__
approximate
proximal
(adj) the stage that follows the current one (adj) nearest, subsequent
(v) to get close to
schema
(pl. schemata)
scheme
schematic
(n) organized information
(v) to plan, design
(n) concepts, mental
structure(s)
stable
stabilize
stable
(adj) staying the same, unchanging
(adj) fixed, firm
zone
zone
__
(n) a stage in the learning process
(v) area
6.1 Vocabulary
A Study the words in box a.
5 Group the words in box a according to their
stress pattern.
one syllable
peer, zone
Oo
mentor, schema, stable
oO
acquire, construct
Ooo
cognitive, cultural, proximal
oOo
experiment
oOoo
accommodate, accumulate, experiment
ooooOo
experimentation
6.1 Vocabulary
B Study the pictures on the opposite page. Discuss these
questions using words from Exercise A.
1 Look at Picture 1 on the opposite page. What does
the picture show? What do you know about cognitive
development?
Picture 1 shows a child playing with shapes and
trying to match them with their corresponding holes.
It illustrates Piaget’s theory of the child as a scientist,
interacting with its environment. Piget’s model of
cognitive development (evolving our thought
processes), explains learning as a process of
experimentation (testing theories).
6.1 Vocabulary
B Study the pictures on the opposite page. Discuss these
questions using words from Exercise A.
2 Look at Pictures 2 and 3. What concept does
each diagram illustrate?
Diagram 1 illustrates a schema with the central
concept of ‘shapes’ and the variable concepts of
‘star’, ‘square’, ‘oval’, ‘diamond’ and ‘circle’.
According to Piaget, we construct (formulate) new
schemata (mental structures) when our current,
stable (fixed), ideas are challenged by unexpected
information. The mind accommodates (adjusts
and/or assimilates new objects) the new
information within existing schemata.
6.1 Vocabulary
B Study the pictures on the opposite page. Discuss these
questions using words from Exercise A.
2 Look at Pictures 2 and 3. What concept does
each diagram illustrate?
Diagram 2 illustrates Vygotsky’s Zone (area) of
Proximal (subsequent) Development (evolution).
Vygotsky maintained that learning was culturally
(socially) dependent and that knowledge can be
acquired (gained) from peers (co-learners) who act
as mentors (guides) to their companions.
6.1 Vocabulary
B Study the pictures on the opposite page. Discuss these
questions using words from Exercise A.
3 Look at Pictures 5 and 6. What do these learning
situations have in common?
Both pictures illustrate learning in a social context. The
child is acquiring language by interacting with his/her
parent. The apprentice has a mentor who is more
experienced, taking him into the zone of proximal
development. Apprentices also learn from their peers.
6.1 Vocabulary
C Student A has written about the development of
cognitive skills, but there are some mistakes. Change
the italicized words so that the sentences are true.
Student A
1 Cognitive skills are developed through imitation.
2 No social information is necessary for the development of
linguistic skills.
3 Children need an apprentice to help them understand new
ideas.
4 The human brain cannot make space for new information.
5 Children disperse knowledge by interacting with their
environment.
experimentation
Cultural
a mentor
accommodates
accumulate/acquire
6.1 Vocabulary
D Student B has also written about the development of
cognitive skills. Match each sentence with a corrected
sentence from Exercise C.
Student A
1 Cognitive skills are developed through
experimentation.
2 Cultural information is necessary for
the development of linguistic skills.
3 Children need a mentor to help them
understand new ideas.
4 The human brain accommodates new
information.
5 Children accumulate/acquire
knowledge by interacting with their
environment.
Student B
6.1 Vocabulary
E Look at Pictures 1 and 4 on the opposite page.
1 Write a paragraph comparing the learning situations in
these pictures.
2 Exchange your paragraph with your partner.
3 Rewrite your partner’s sentences in your own words.
Model answer:
Pictures 1 and 4 show children in learning situations. The main
difference between them is that in Picture 1 the child is learning
on her own, whereas in Picture 4 the children are talking to each
other and learning in a group. These scenes highlight the
difference between Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and
that of Vygotsky. While Piaget described the child as
experimenting freely with its surroundings without guidance,
Vygotsky believed that learning took place in a social context
with an experienced mentor and through the medium of
language.
6.1 Vocabulary
F Think about the advantages and disadvantages of
learning in a group.
1 Make a list of the advantages and disadvantages of learning in a group. Write a
short paragraph about them.
2 Write your paragraph again, using different words.
6.2 Reading
A Discuss these questions.
1 What stages do babies and children go through as they develop?
2 Do children of all cultures learn the same things at the same stage of development?
Common sense suggests that people learn what is most useful for their immediate
survival. Piaget’s model of cognitive development did not take cultural influences
into account. Vygotsky thought they were fundamental to learning.
3 Which comes first: language or thought?
This question is still under debate. Some theorists (e.g., Whorf and Sapir)
maintained that language was essential to the development of thought. Vygotsky
believed that thought existed simultaneously, but separately from language.
Piaget claimed that thought developed first and that language labels were
associated later.
6.2 Reading
B Look at the photographs on the right.
1 Look at the following information. Decide
which is about Lev Vygotsky and which is
about Jean Piaget.
Vygotsky
a He was born in Russia.
__________________
Piaget
b He trained as a biologist. __________________
Piaget
c He was born in Switzerland.__________________
Vygotsky
d He was a psychologist.
__________________
e He investigated the relationship between
Vygotsky
language and thought.
__________________
f He is famous for his research into cognitive
Piaget
development.
__________________
2 Exchange information with your partner.
6.2 Reading
C Look at the illustration, the title, the introduction and the
first sentence of each paragraph on the opposite page.
What will the text be about?
Suggestion:
Set for individual work.
Elicit ideas, but do not
confirm or correct.
6.2 Reading
D Using your ideas from Exercises A, B and C, write some
research questions.
Suggestion:
Set for individual work and
pairwork checking.
6.2 Reading
E Read the text. Does it answer your questions?
Suggestion:
Set for individual work.
F Study the highlighted sentences in the text. Find and
underline the subject, verb and object or complement in
each sentence. See Skills bank.
6.2 Reading
Subject
Verb
Object/complement
This article
will outline
highlight
illustrate
their approaches to cognitive development
the main differences between their theories
their influence on modern classroom practice.
Vygotsky
describes
language
learning
is
domain dependent.
Piaget’s paradigm
largely ignores
the importance of social interaction on the
cognitive development of the child and, the role of
language in this process.
Vygotsky’s
emphasis on the
importance of …
has had
a profound effect on language teaching methods
for both children and adults.
Skills bank
Finding the main information
Sentences in academic and technical texts are often very long.
Example:
According to Vygotsky, cognitive development is culturally determined, which
means that children in some cultures will develop certain cognitive skills to a
higher level than in others, depending on the importance of that particular skill
to that culture.
You often don’t have to understand every word, but you must identify the
subject, the verb and the object, if there is one.
For example, in the sentence above, we find:
subject = cognitive development
subject = children
verb = is determined
verb = will develop
object = none
object = cognitive skills
Skills bank
Finding the main information
Remember!
You can remove any leading prepositional phrases at this point to help you find
the subject, e.g., According to Vygotsky, …
You must then find the main words which modify the subject, the verb and the
object or complement.
In the sentence above we find:
Which cognitive development? = determined
How determined? = culturally
What children? = in some cultures
How develop? = to a higher level than in others
Which cognitive skills? = certain
Skills bank
Finding the main information
Ellipsis
Sometimes, if the meaning is clear, words are implied rather than actually given
in the text.
Examples:
… will develop the cognitive skills (which are) crucial to this ability.
He proposed that all children acquired cognitive skills at predetermined stages
and (acquired them) in a specific order.
6.2 Reading
G Two students paraphrased part of the text.
1 Which part of the text
are these paraphrases of?
The first four sentences
of paragraph 5.
2 Which paraphrase is better? Why?
Student B’s paraphrase is better, because it uses
fewer words from the original text and uses
different sentence structures.
6.2 Reading
H Work in groups. Write a paraphrase of a different part of
the text.
See Vocabulary bank.
Vocabulary bank
Reporting findings
You cannot use another writer’s words unless you directly quote. Instead, you
must restate or paraphrase.
There are several useful ways to do this:
use a synonym of a word or phrase
model ➔ paradigm
have resulted in ➔ have led to
change negative to positive and vice
versa
their models differ ➔their models are not similar
use a replacement subject
cognitive development depends on the child’s culture ➔
the child’s culture affects its cognitive development
change from active to passive or vice
versa
Vygotsky believed that learning was domain dependent
➔ learning was believed to be domain dependent
change the order of information
language acts as an interface between individuals ➔
people use language to communicate
Vocabulary bank
Reporting findings
When reporting findings from one source, you should use all the methods
above.
Example:
Original text
Vygotsky’s model, on the other hand, encourages more
advanced learners to teach less experienced learners through
social interaction and language.
Report
However, according to Vygotsky’s paradigm, novices can be
taught through discussion by more skilled students.
Vocabulary bank
Reporting findings
Important
When paraphrasing, you should aim to make sure that 90% of the words you
use are different from the original. It is not enough to change only a few
vocabulary items: this will result in plagiarism. A paraphrase should only be
used in conjunction with a clear acknowledgement of the source.
Example:
Original text
A final example of the influence of both scientists on teaching
approaches is the relatively recent development of peer teaching
and collaborative learning methods.
Plagiarism
A final example of the effect of both scientists on teaching methods
is the relatively new development of peer teaching and collaborative
learning.
6.3 Extending skills
A Study the words in box a from the text in Lesson 6. 2.
Word
Part of
speech
Similar meaning
language (1, 2)
n
linguistic (2)
model (1)
n
paradigm (5)
tool (2)
n
means (2)
domain (3)
n
context (5)
support (4)
n
guidance (4), scaffolding (4, 6)
the text with a similar
structure (5)
n
schema (5)
meaning to each word.
major (6)
adj
significant (1)
focus (6)
n
emphasis (6)
1 What part of speech are
they in the text?
2 Find one or more words in
(Paragraph numbers in brackets):
6.3 Extending skills
B Complete the summary on the right with words from
Exercise A.
model/paradigm of cognitive development
Vygotsky’s _____________________
language is a ________________for
tool/means
suggests that _____________
passing the
traditions of a culture from one generation to the next. He
domain/context dependent. There is a
saw cognition as _____________________
major/significant
_________________________
difference between Vygotsky and
focus/emphasis
Piaget, whose _______________________was
more on the ability
structure/schema
of the child to create a mental _________________________
through
experimentation
support/guidance/scaffolding
_____________________________________.
and
without
6.3 Extending skills
C Study the words in box b. 1 What is each base word
and its meaning in psychology? 2 How does the affix
change the part of speech? 3 What is the meaning in
the text in Lesson 6.2?
Word
Base and meaning
Effect of affix
social
society (n, C) – living in a group
Meaning in text
~al = adjective ending shared experiences
communicated through language
linguistic
lingua
1. (n, Latin) – tongue
2. language
~istic = adjective
ending
importantly
important (adj) – to be significant ~ly = adverb
a key point
generation
generate (v) – to produce
a group of people of the
same age
~ation = noun ending
related to understanding
language
6.3 Extending skills
C Study the words in box b. 1 What is each base word
and its meaning in psychology? 2 How does the affix
change the part of speech? 3 What is the meaning in
the text in Lesson 6.2?
Word
Base and meaning
Effect of affix
Meaning in text
scaffolding
scaffold 1. (n, U) – support
2. (v, T) – support
~ing = noun ending
providing an organized
framework for learning
idealized
ideal 1. (n, C) – ideological
principles 2. (adj) - perfect
~ ed = past perfect =
adjective ending
imaginary, unreal
predetermined
determine (v) – decide, limit,
fix, establish
pre~ = in advance
~ed = past perfect
adjective ending
stages of learning that are
fixed by developmental
processes
~ist = noun ending
a person who studies the
material world
scientist
science (n, C/U) – the rational
study of physical phenomena
through observation and
experimentation
6.3 Extending skills
D Study sentences A–E on the opposite page. 1 Copy and
complete Table 1. Put the parts of each sentence in the
correct box.
A Children may develop schemata
through a process of experimentation,
which continuously tests their
theories about their environment.
D A learner, having already mastered a
skill, can mentor another who is less
advanced.
B Language, which is a cultural tool, is
used to transmit traditional values
from the older members of society to
the younger.
E New information, challenging our
current concepts, creates a state of
disequilibrium, which results in
learning.
C School curricula have been influenced
by Vygotsky and Piaget, whose
theories of cognitive development led
to collaborative learning methods.
6.3 Extending skills
D Study sentences A–E on the opposite page.1 Copy and
complete Table 1. Put the parts of each sentence in the
correct box.
Main S
Main V
Main O/C
Other V + S/O/C
Adv. phrases
A
Children
may
develop
schemata
…which continuously test
their theories about their
environment.
through a process
of experimentation
B
Language
is used to
transmit
traditional
values
…which is a cultural tool
from the older
members of society
to the younger.
C
School curricula
have been
influenced
(by)
Vygotsky and … whose theories of
cognitive development led
Piaget
to collaborative learning
methods.
*underlined text = means by which dependent clause is joined to main clause
6.3 Extending skills
D Study sentences A–E on the opposite page.1 Copy and
complete Table 1. Put the parts of each sentence in the
correct box.
Main S
Main V
Main O/C
Other V + S/O/C
D
A learner
can mentor
another
1. … having already mastered
a skill
2. … who is less advanced.
E
New
information
creates
a state of
disequilibrium
1. … challenging our current
concepts,…
2. … which results in learning.
* underlined text = means by which dependent clause is joined to main clause
Adv. phrases
6.3 Extending skills
D Study sentences A–E on the opposite page.
2 Rewrite the main part of each sentence, changing the verb from active to passive
or vice versa.
Schemata may be developed by children, in a process of experimentation, which
A continuously tests their theories about their environment.
B The older members of a society use language as a cultural tool to transmit traditional
values to younger members.
C Vygotsky and Piaget, whose theories of cognitive development led to collaborative learning
methods, influenced school curricula.
D A less advanced learner can be mentored by a learner who has already mastered a skill.
E Learning takes place when a state of disequilibrium is created by new information
challenging our current concepts.
6.3 Extending skills
E Look at the ‘Other V + S/O/C’ column in Table 1.
1 How are the clauses linked to the main part of the sentence?
Sentences A–D use relative clauses. D and E use participle clauses
(having …; challenging …).
2 In sentences A–D, what does each relative pronoun refer to?
A which = a process of experimentation
B which = language
C which = Vygotsky and Piaget
D who = another (learner)
6.3 Extending skills
E Look at the ‘Other V + S/O/C’ column in Table 1.
3 Make the clauses into complete sentences.
A A process of experimentation continuously tests their theories about their
environment.
B Language is a cultural tool.
C Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s theories of cognitive development led to collaborative
learning methods.
D 1. A learner has already mastered a skill.
B Another learner is less advanced.
E Our current concepts have been challenged.
6.4 Extending skills
A Make one sentence for each box on the right, using
the method given in bold. Include the italicized
words. Write all the sentences as one paragraph.
6.4 Extending skills
A Make one sentence for each box on the right, using the
method given in bold. Include the italicized words.
Write all the sentences as one paragraph.
Possible answer:
Research into linguistic relativity has investigated the labelling of colours across
cultures. It has established that a total of eleven ‘focal’ colours are referred to across all
cultures, including black, white, red,green and yellow. A study carried out in 1995
discovered that when only two colours are identified by name in a language, they are
black and white.
6.4 Extending skills
B Study the notes on the opposite page, which a
student made about a case study. Write up the case
study. Include the ideas from Exercise A.
1 Divide the notes into sections to
make suitable paragraphs. Where
should the paragraph in Exercise A
go?
2 Decide which ideas are suitable
topic sentences for the paragraphs.
Which idea can you use as a topic
sentence for the paragraph in
Exercise A?
6.4 Extending skills
B Study the notes on the opposite page, which a
student made about a case study. Write up the case
study. Include the ideas from Exercise A.
Language and thought
• Sapir & Whorf – 1929 -1956 - linguistic relativity
hypothesis (LRH) = theory = language defines thinking
• strong version = language controls mental categories +
organizes experience →cannot understand concepts
w.out lang.
• diff. cultures and languages = diff. words + diff.
categories – lang. affect ways people perceive concepts
• BUT weak version of theory = language influences
perception of objects → we can understand unknown
concepts
• e.g. research into LRH looked at labelling
colours across cultures (controlling idea
for topic sentence from Exercise A)
• 11 focal colours across cultures: incl.
black, white, red, green + yellow
• 1995 research = some cultures hv. words
for: ONLY 2 colrs. = black and white
6.4 Extending skills
B Study the notes on the opposite page, which a
student made about a case study. Write up the case
study. Include the ideas from Exercise A.
• Brown and Lennenberg (1954): experiment to test ability of
3 groups to differentiate btwn. colrs.
• Group A: monolingual (Lang.A) (1 word for yellow +
orange) Group B: monolingual (Lang.B) (2 words, 1 for
yellow, 1 for orange)
• Group C: bilingual (Lang. A + B)
• Group A – not differentiate/Group B – differentiate/Group C
– sometimes differentiate
• conclusion: lang. affects ability to label concepts • recent research wth. brain scans = easy-to-name
colours produce stronger stimulus in areas of
brain assoc. wth. lang.
• conclusion: colours with label in a lang. = easier
to recognize
• ∴ language influences colour perception
6.4 Extending skills
B Study the notes on the opposite page, which a
student made about a case study. Write up the case
study. Include the ideas from Exercise A.
3 Make full sentences from the notes, joining ideas where possible, to make
one continuous text.
Possible answer:
Between 1929 and 1956 Sapir and Whorf developed their ‘linguisic relativity
hypothesis’. The fundamental theory supporting the LRH is that language defines
thinking. Following the strong version of this hypothesis, language controls the mental
categories we create from our experience. In other words, language organizes our
experience and we are unable to understand concepts without the language to describe
them. A logical extension of this idea is that speakers of different languages will
perceive things in different ways. Under the weak version, however, language only
influences our perception of objects; it does not prevent us from understanding them.
6.4 Extending skills
B Study the notes on the opposite page, which a
student made about a case study. Write up the case
study. Include the ideas from Exercise A.
3 Make full sentences from the notes, joining ideas where possible, to make
one continuous text.
For example, research into linguistic relativity has investigated the labelling of colours
across cultures. It has established that a total of eleven ‘focal’ colours are referred to
across all cultures, including black, white, red, green and yellow. A study carried out in
1995 discovered that when only two colours are identified by name in a language, they
are black and white.
As early as 1954, Brown and Lennenberg conducted an experiment to test the ability of
three groups to differentiate between colours. Group A was monolingual in language A,
which had one word for yellow and orange. Group B was monolingual in language B,
which had different words for yellow and orange, and Group C was bilingual in
languages A and B. Brown and Lennenberg discovered that Group A did not make a
6.4 Extending skills
B Study the notes on the opposite page, which a
student made about a case study. Write up the case
study. Include the ideas from Exercise A.
3 Make full sentences from the notes, joining ideas where possible, to make one
continuous text.
distinction between the two colours, Group B did differentiate and Group C
sometimes distinguished between them. The researchers concluded that language
affected the ability to label different concepts.
Recent research, using brain scan technology has found that colours that are easy to
name produce a stronger stimulus in the part of the brain associated with language.
This study has concluded that colours that have a label in a language are easier to
recognize, and that consequently language influences colour perception.
Tips for Reference
6.1 Vocabulary部分，学生课前完成练习A，教师课堂讲解如何描述图表，
讨论练习B、C 、D、E 、 F 。
6.2 Reading部分，让学生阅读课文 ‘Vygotsky and Piaget: thought and
language’ ， 完 成 练 习 B 、 C 、 D 、 E 。 教 师 课 堂 讲 解 Skills bank 中 的
‘Finding the main information’技能，学习如何分析长句，完成练习F。
教师课堂讲解Vocabulary bank 中的 ‘Reporting findings’技能，学习如何
转述句子，完成练习G。
6.3 Extending skills部分，让学生课前完成练习A、B 、 C；课堂教师讲解
练习D 、E ，巩固分析长句的技能。
6.4 Extending skills部分，让学生课后完成练习A 、B ，练习写复合句以
及将主题句扩展成段落。
谢谢欣赏！