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Chapter 6
Securing Independence, Defining
Nationhood
1776-1788
Introduction
• 1.) What were the different conflicts contained
within the American Revolution?
• 2.) How did the Revolution affect relationships
among Americans of different classes, races, and
genders?
• 3.) How did the state constitutions and Articles of
Confederation reflect older political ideas?
Introduction (cont.)
• 4.) How did the Constitution’s proponents
address Americans’ concerns about
concentrated political power?
The Prospects of War
• Introduction
– The Revolution was a war of the American people
against the British
– and a civil war between American supporters of
independence and Americans who were opposed
to breaking with the mother country
Loyalists and Other British
Sympathizers
About 20% of all whites opposed the Revolution
•
• Loyalists
– Allegiance to the crown
– Aka “Tories”
• Hated by patriots (revolutionaries)
• Largest % of loyalists were in NY and NJ
• Recent British immigrants and French Canadians
tended to be loyalists
Loyalists and Other British
Sympathizers (cont.)
• Thousands of southern slaves escaped to the
royal army
– African-Americans in the North were more likely
to support the Revolution
• Indian tribes were divided and many wanted
to sit out the conflict
– Majority sided with the British
The Opposing Sides
• Advantages of the British
– Outnumbered the Americans 11 million to 2.5 million
– Largest navy
– One of the best professional armies
• Disadvantages of the British
– Difficulty in recruiting soldiers (employed 21,000 loyalists
and 30,000 Hessians)
– Supplying armies 3,000 miles across the ocean
– Financial strain
– English domestic support for the War waned
The Opposing Sides (cont.)
• Americans mobilized their smaller population
behind the war more effectively
• After 1778 they had French and Spanish
assistance
– Mostly veteran European officers
The Opposing Sides (cont.)
• American problems:
– 1/3 of population were slaves or opposed to the
Revolution
– State militias did well in guerrilla raids but lacked training
for battles
– Few experienced officers
– Raw recruits
• Americans did not have to conquer redcoats
• Rebels just had to keep resisting until the British
public tired of the struggle
The Opposing Sides (cont.)
• George Washington was the logical choice as
commander of the American army
• VA tobacco planter
• Member of the House of Burgesses
• Representative at the Continental Congress
• Former military leader of the colonists
War and Peace, 1776-1783
• Introduction
– Until mid-1778, fighting remained in the North
• Each side won important victories
– American forces prevailed over British troops and their
Native American allies to gain control of the transAppalachian West
– The War was finally decided in the South
• American and French forces won at Yorktown, VA in 1781
– In the peace treaty, Britain acknowledged American
independence
– http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/shepherd/ame
rican_revolution.jpg
Shifting Fortunes in the North,
1776-1778
• New York
– 130 British warships carrying 32,000 royal troops landed
near NY harbor in summer of 1776
• Led by General William Howe and Admiral Richard Howe
– 18,000 American soldiers
• Led by Washington
– By end of 1776, British forced Americans to retreat from
NY across NJ and the Delaware River into PA
Shifting Fortunes in the North,
1776-1778 (cont.)
• During the winter of 1776-1777, Washington
struck back at Trenton and Princeton
• Recoats pulled back to NY
• In NJ, the Whigs forced loyalists remaining in
the state to pledge allegiance to the
Continental Congress
Shifting Fortunes in the North,
1776-1778 (cont.)
• Americans’ best hope for victory lay in French
diplomatic recognition and military alliance
• Louis XVI held back until he became convinced that
the Americans had a chance of winning
– October 1777
– Saratoga, NY
– American forces surrounded British forces and forced
5,800 British troops to surrender
Shifting Fortunes in the North,
1776-1778 (cont.)
•
•
•
•
French were impressed with the victory at Saratoga
Feb. 1778, France recognized the United States
June 1778, France declared war on England
Subsequently, the Spanish and Dutch Republic also
declared war on Britain
• Turning point in the war
– The formation of this coalition against GB
Shifting Fortunes in the North,
1776-1778 (cont.)
• Fall of 1777, the British inflicted defeats on
Washington’s army at Brandywine Creek and
Germantown, PA
• British occupied Philadelphia
• Forced Continental Congress to flee
• Winter of 1777-1778
– Royal in Philadelphia (comfortable)
– Washington’s troops at Valley Forge (froze and under
supplied and equipped)
Valley Forge
Shifting Fortunes in the North,
1776-1778 (cont.)
• Battle of Monmouth Court House
– NJ
– June 1778
– Continentals defeated British
– British escaped to NY
• Protected by British Navy
– Washington hovered across the Hudson River
keeping an eye on them
The War in the West, 1776-1782
• Although the number of people involved in
the frontier battles was small, the skirmishes
were deadly
• British, Americans, and Indians realized that
the victor of the West would control the area
west of the Appalachian Mountains
The War in the West, 1776-1782
(cont.)
• The battles began in the South
– Cherokees attacked from VA to GA
– By 1777, the frontiersmen had crushed the
Cherokees
– forced the Cherokees to cede much of their land
in the Carolinas and TN
The War in the West, 1776-1782
(cont.)
• Expeditions led by George Rogers Clark, John
Bowman, and Daniel Brodhead inflicted heavy losses
on hostile Ohio Indian tribes
• Ohio Indian tribes would continue to fight until
1780’s
• Joseph Brant led the Iroquois on deadly raids against
the western NY and PA settlers until he was stopped
at a battle near Elmira, NY
The War in the West, 1776-1782
(cont.)
• By war’s end, the Iroquois population had
dropped by a 1/3
• Not greatly influencing the outcome of the
war
• These battles played a major role in the
development of the future American nation
Victory in the South, 1778-1781
• After 1778, the British
shifted their attention to
the South
• 1st victory at Savannah
• 1780
– British took Charles Town,
SC
– General Charles Cornwallis
led British
– Nathaniel Greene led
Americans
Victory in the South, 1778-1781
(cont.)
• Cornwallis led English forces into the Carolina
backcountry
– British victories
• Camden and Guilford Courthouse
– American victories
• Kings Mountain and Cowpens
• British suffered heavy casualties in the Carolina
backcountry though
– Cornwallis decided to head back to VA
Victory in the South, 1778-1781
(cont.)
• Cornwallis established a new base on Virginia’s
Yorktown Peninsula
• Battle of Yorktown
– American and French armies
– French fleet
– Cut off and surrounded British
• October 19, 1781 Cornwallis surrendered
• The fighting in the Revolutionary War ended
Battle of Yorktown Surrender
Peace at Last, 1782-1783
• Treaty of Paris
– John Adams, John Jay,
Benjamin Franklin
represented America
– Began in June 1782
– Signed in Sept. 1783
Peace at Last, 1782-1783 (cont.)
• British recognized American independence
• British promised to remove all troops from American
soil
• Mississippi River became the western boundary of
the new nation
• New Orleans and the outlet of the river to the Gulf of
Mexico as well as East and West Florida went to
Spain
Peace at Last, 1782-1783 (cont.)
• Notably absent from the Treaty was any reference to
Native Americans
• Native Americans refused to acknowledge American
sovereignty over their territories
• The Confederation agreed to compensate loyalists
for their property losses and repay British creditors
– several states later refused to comply
– In retaliation, the British did not evacuate forts they sill
held in the Northwest
Peace at Last, 1782-1783 (cont.)
• American victory had been costly
– At least 5% of free males between 16 and 45 died in the
war
– Many loyalists and former slaves fled to Canada, Britain,
and the West Indies
• The War did not address 2 important issues:
– 1.) what kind of society America was to become
– 2.) what sort of govt. the new nation would possess
The Revolution and Social Change
• Egalitarianism Among White Males
– There was no significant redistribution of wealth in
American during the Revolution
– The Declaration of Independence’s bold assertion that “all
men are created equal” did promote more egalitarian
attitudes
– The upper class found it prudent to simplify their
standards of living and treat common people with more
respect
Egalitarianism Among White Males
(cont.)
• Ordinary folks were less likely to defer to their
“betters” or automatically leave governing to them
• Americans began to feel that political leaders should
some from the “natural aristocracy”
– Men who demonstrated virtue
– accomplishments
– dedication to the public good
Egalitarianism Among White Males
(cont.)
• The gains made through the advantage of
family retreated before the republican
principle of ability
• The new egalitarianism did not include
women, blacks, Indians, and landless white
men
White Women in Wartime
• During the Revolution, the assumptions about
women barely changed
– Women were dependent on fathers and husbands
– Had no public role to play
White Women in Wartime (cont.)
• However, in the midst of war
–
–
–
–
women took on added responsibilities
served visibly in support of the fighting men
Raised $$$ for the troops
Some even served incognito
• The gains and rights they deserved for this and other
social responsibilities would be up for discussion in
the new republic
• Abigail Adams would led fight for change
Abigail Adams
A Revolution for Black Americans
• In 1776, blacks accounted for 20% of U.S. population
– Almost all of them were enslaved
– Majority in the South
• 5,000 blacks served in the Continental Army
• The Declaration of Independence’s words about
equality made the Whigs uneasy about slavery
• The Quakers had taken the lead in attacking slavery
A Revolution for Black Americans
(cont.)
• Between 1777 and 1810
– All northern states instituted gradual
emancipation
– No southern states outlawed bondage
• Several southern states did make the
voluntary freeing of slaves easier
– By 1790, about 5% of VA and MD blacks had been
freed
A Revolution for Black Americans
(cont.)
• Most free blacks remained poor laborers, domestics,
or tenant farmers
• Some blacks and whites began to advocate the idea
that freed slaves might be better off being returned
to their homelands in Africa (Prince Hall)
• Most states granted freedmen certain civil rights
– Blacks continued to be treated as 2nd class citizens
Native Americans and the
Revolution
• Native Americans suffered the worst of any group
during the War
• For many whites the republic’s promise of equal
opportunity meant moving west to obtain their own
land
– Moving into Indian territory
• The tribes of the Ohio Valley were especially
vulnerable
– Between 1754 and 1783, war and uprooting had reduced
the Native American population east of the Mississippi by
nearly 50%
Native Americans and the
Revolution (cont.)
• Many Indians still living east of the River
adapted some features of white culture,
combined it with native customs, and created
new lifestyles
• But they insisted on their right to control their
own communities and lives
Forging New Governments
• From Colonies to States
– Certain beliefs inherited from the colonial era stood in the
way of a thorough democratization of politics
– Most Whigs believed that voting and office holding must
be tied to property ownership
• They frowned on political parties as strife-causing factions
• They did not see the need for apportioning seats in a legislature on
the basis of population
From Colonies to States (cont.)
• Whigs were wary of unchecked executive authority
• Inclined to augment the role of elected legislatures
• Interested in framing government institutions that
would balance the interests of different classes to
prevent any one group from gaining absolute power
From Colonies to States (cont.)
• The 1st state constitutions reflected both the radical
and traditional features of Whig thought
• Except for PA’s, they did not provide for election
districts that were equal in population
• 9 of the 13 state reduced property qualifications for
voting
– But none abolished them entirely
• By 1784, all state constitutions included a bill of
rights
From Colonies to States (cont.)
• The state constitutions provided for frequent
elections and stripped the governors of most
of their powers
• In 1780’s, many states revised their
constitutions to strengthen the executive
branch and increase the political power of
wealthy elites
From Colonies to States (cont.)
• Most of the states also enacted social reforms
• For Example
– In VA, Thomas Jefferson framed legislation abolishing
primogeniture (the right of the 1st child to inherit their
parents property)
– Abolishing entails (to restrict inheritance of property in a
will)
– the established churches
– guaranteeing religious freedom
Formalizing a Confederation, 17761781
• In 1777, the Continental Congress drafted a
constitution called the Articles of Confederation
• http://www.usconstitution.net/articles.html
• 4 years passed before the states ratified the Articles
of Confederation
– Disputes over states’ claims to western land and their
representation in Congress
Formalizing a Confederation, 17761781 (cont.)
• There was a unicameral congress in which each state
had 1 vote
• No national court system
• No executive branch
• Financial, diplomatic, and military affairs were
managed by congressional committees
• The congress could request funds from states but
could not tax the people directly or regulate
interstate and foreign commerce
Formalizing a Confederation, 17761781 (cont.)
• The Articles affirmed the new nation’s
attachment to decentralized power when it
reserved to each state full “sovereignty,
freedom, and independence”
• This left the national government severely
limited in important respects
Finance, Trade, and the Economy,
1781-1786
• The confederation proved too weak to meet its
greatest challenge (putting the country’s finances on
a sound basis)
• Unable to tax the people or force the states to
contribute funds
– the congress could not pay off it Revolutionary War debt
– Or meet its operating expenses
Finance, Trade, and the Economy,
1781-1786 (cont.)
• Nor could the government under the Articles
win diplomatic concessions from the British,
who badly hurt New England shippers and
merchants by shutting them out of the West
Indian trade and imposing steep customs fees
on goods entering England
Finance, Trade, and the
Economy, 1781-1786 (cont.)
• Declining exports
depressed the
economies of both
New England and the
South
• Its paper currency, the
Continental,
depreciated by 98%
The Confederation and the West,
1785-1787
• The confederation also had to decide on the
future of the trans-Appalachian west
– speculators and settles wanted to acquire these
lands immediately
– Native Americans determined to keep their homes
The Confederation and the West,
1785-1787 (cont.)
• The Confederation responded by forcing
Indian leaders to sign treaties ceding western
lands,
• the tribes, disputed the legitimacy of these
American appointed Indian leaders
– repudiated the treaties
The Confederation and the West,
1785-1787 (cont.)
• Congress passed the Ordinance of 1785 and the
Northwest Ordinance of 1787
– Set a successful pattern for surveying, selling, and
administering western lands
– Provided the way for territories to become states with the
same powers and privileges as the original 13 states
– Northwest Ordinance for the 1st time banned slavery from
a territory
– http://www.earlyamerica.com/earlyamerica/milestones/or
dinance/text.html
The Confederation and the West,
1785-1787 (cont.)
• The British and Spanish governments made
life difficult for western settlers.
• British
– refused to evacuate 7 forts in the Ohio Valley
– Supplied Indians in the region with arms and
ammunition.
The Confederation and the West,
1785-1787 (cont.)
• Spanish
– Sided with the Indians against American frontier
families
– closed off New Orleans to western farmers who
wanted to ship their produce down the Mississippi
and out to eastern cities and Europe through New
Orleans
The Confederation and the West,
1785-1787 (cont.)
• Map of forts
– http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/english/exhibits/franco_on
tarian/war.htm
• Some westerns saw independent negotiations with
Spain as the best resolution
• Many westerns predicted a new independent
western country would break away from the weak
confederation
Toward a New Constitution, 17861788
• Shays’ Rebellion, 1786-1787
–
–
–
–
–
1786
Massachusetts
Led by Daniel Shay
Farmers and debtors vs. the MA govt.
State militia defeated Shays’ followers
• Results:
– Some Americans feared that the govt. was unable to
protect even domestic law and order
– Producers wanted a stronger govt. to regulate interstate
and foreign commerce
Shays’ Rebellion, 1786-1787 (cont.)
– Merchants and shippers desired a govt. that could secure
foreign trade opportunities for them
– Westerns hoped for better protection from the Indians
• 1786
– Meeting in Annapolis
– Originally meant to promote interstate commerce
– Instead called for a general convention of all the states to
amend the Articles and create a more effective national
govt.
The Philadelphia Convention
• Spring and summer of 1787
• 55 delegates from every state besides RI
– The majority were wealthy, had legal training, and shared
a nationalist rather than a local perspective
• Sessions were closed to the press and the public
• Decided to abandon the Articles and write a new
constitution
The Philadelphia Convention
(cont.)
• The convention
worked from a draft
written by James
Madison
• “Virginia Plan”
The Philadelphia Convention
(cont.)
• “Virginia Plan”
– A national govt.
• Broad powers to tax, legislate, and use military force
against the states
– 2 house congress
• Representation in both chambers based on population
The Philadelphia Convention
(cont.)
• Small states worried that they would always
be outvoted
• Objected to the VA Plan
• Created the “New Jersey Plan”
The Philadelphia Convention
(cont.)
• “New Jersey Plan”
– Unicameral congress
– Each state, regardless of population, had an equal
voice
• http://library.thinkquest.org/11572/creation/f
raming/va_nj_plans.html
The Philadelphia Convention
(cont.)
• The convention finally agreed to a
compromise
• 2-chamber legislature
– Representation in the House based on population
– Representation in the Senate based on the
principle of equality for each state
The Philadelphia Convention
(cont.)
• The Constitution was finished in September
1787
• Federal govt. powers:
– Levy and collect taxes
– Conduct diplomacy
– Protect domestic order
– Authority to coin $$$$
– Regulate interstate and foreign commerce
The Philadelphia Convention
(cont.)
• The Constitution carefully balanced state and
federal power, the interests of one social
group against another, and the authority of
one branch of the national govt. vs. another
• Federalism, separation of powers, checks and
balances
The Philadelphia Convention
(cont.)
• Many features of the Constitution were NOT
democratic:
– Recognized and in some ways protected slavery (3/5’s
clause)
– Allowed direct election only of members of the House of
Rep.
• Democratic features:
– It acknowledge the people as the “ultimate source of
political legitimacy”
– Amendment process (allowed democratization of the govt.
in years ahead)
The Philadelphia Convention
(cont.)
• The delegates provided for ratification of the
Constitution by special state conventions
composed of delegated elected by the people
• Needed 9 conventions to approve the new
Constitution
The Struggle over Ratification,
1787-1788
• During 1787 and 1788, the country divided into
Federalists and Antifederalists
• Federalists supported the Constitution
• Antifederalists did NOT support it
– feared that the Constitution concentrated too much
centralized power in the hands of a national elite
– that individuals’ freedoms would be trampled because the
document contained no bill of rights
The Struggle over Ratification
(cont.)
• Antifederalists lacked the leadership stature of
prominent Federalists like George Washington
and Benjamin Franklin
• Federalists promised to provide a bill of rights
• Federalist victory
The Struggle over Ratification
(cont.)
• The Federalist Papers
– A series of articles
– an effort to win New Yorkers over to the
Constitution
• Written by John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and James
Madison
– Valuable commentary on the Constitution and
insight into the political philosophy of the
Founding Fathers
Federalist Papers
• http://www.foundingf
athers.info/federalistp
apers/
Conclusion
• The final triumph of the nationalism born of the War
of Independence came in late 1789 and early 1790,
when the last 2 reluctant states (NC and RI) ratified
the Constitution and joined the new nation
• The Constitution did not create a democratic govt.
for the U.S.A.; but it did establish the “legal and
institutional framework within which Americans
could struggle to attain democracy”