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World War I Anatomy of a stalemate Initial expectations v. realities: • A short war: belligerents would run out of men and materiel • Failure of initial offensives – Inadequacy of mass rushes – Shortages of supplies • Digging in on the western front: offence gives way – Trench warfare – Tunnelling • Movement on the eastern front Reasons for stalemate • Machine guns – Artillery • Trenches as only defence – Ease of filling gaps • • • • Limits of known military tactics Dense railway network Industrial capabilities put to work Supply of men… Western Front, 1916 Battle of Somme-1 Battle of Somme-2 Costs in human life • Total for WWI 9,000,000 • Battle of the Somme – Allies: 600,000 • July 1 alone: 60,000 – Germans: 615,000 Casualties Failure of peace initiatives • Desire of France and Germany to maintain buffer states on borders • Incorporation of new allies with demands on territory of belligerents Determining factors: • • • • Supply of food and raw materials Exhaustion of combatants Success of British naval blockage American entry (triggered by German submarine warfare) Changes in government as result of the war • Need to plan and manage domestic economies – Intensive regulation • Incorporation of trade unions and business associations in Britain, Germany • Effective military takeover by 1917 in Germany • Growing indebtedness Changes in societies • Recourse to propaganda, demonization of the enemy • Extensive mobilization • Massive disillusionment, disaffection Consequences: an initial view • • • • Toppling of multinational empires Revolution in Russia Widespread disillusionment Economic dislocation: – Shifts in trade patterns – Indebtedness of European countries to the United States