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Chapter 1
Introduction of Words
Some Interesting Facts
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There is no egg in eggplant, nor ham in hamburger,
Neither apple nor pine in pineapple．
And while no one knows what is a hotdog, you can be
pretty sure it isn‘t canine（犬类）．
English muffins(=hot muffns热松饼，美式早餐/英
式午茶糕点) were not invented in England，Nor
French-fries in France，(炸薯条); 再如：
French window
落地窗，
take French leave
不辞而别，
French grey
浅灰色
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Sweetmeats(糖果)； sweetbreads(甜面包）？
In English we find that quicksand can work slowly, Boxing
rings(拳击赛台)are square．
And why is that writers write, but fingers don't fing，
grocers don't groce, and hammers don't ham?
If the plural of tooth is teeth, why isn‘t the plural of booth，
beeth? One goose，two geese, So, one moose(驼鹿), two
meese?(复数形式仍然是moose)；One mouse, two mice;
One louse(虱子), two lice; One house? two hice?
If teachers taught, why didn't preacher praught?(preached)
If a vegetarian eats vegetables, what does a humanitarian eat?
Why do people recite at a play, and play at a recital? Ship by
truck or car and send cargo by ship?(动词与动词的功能差
异；为什么演话剧时人们要朗诵，而在独奏会上却要演
奏：polysemy)
Have noses that run and feet that smell?
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Park on driveways and drive on parkways?
美国的房子周围有driveway(入户的车道)：私人车
道；parkway大路，干道)
How can a slim chance and a fat chance be the same,
while a wise man and a wise guy are opposites?
When a house burns up, it bums down.(方位稳喻)
You fill in a form by filling it out. (collocation)
And an alarm clock goes off by going on．
You get in and out of a car, yet you get on and off a
bus.
If there is a phrase of “gold bar”, then what does “gold
brick” mean?
And why, when I wind up my watch, I start it, But
when 1 wind up this essay, I end it?（一词多义）
Lexicology as a part of linguistics
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Lexicology is the part of linguistics, dealing with the
vocabulary of a language and the properties of words as the
main units of language.
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Vocabulary means the sum of all the words in the language.
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Good knowledge of the description of the vocabulary, rules of
word-formation, origin and history of words helps to guess
and remember the meaning of new-learned words, to master
the standards of their usage, and to prevent mistakes.
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Two ways to study lexicology: 1) Diachronic approach :
历时语言学 2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学
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1. The definition of a word comprises the
following points:
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(1) a minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound
unity; (3) a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can
function alone in a sentence.
A word is a minimal free form of a language that has
a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
词是语音、意义和语法特点三者统一的整体。词
又是语句的基本结构单位。 (P.1)
A fundamental unit of speech and a minimum free
form; with a unity of sound and meaning (both lexical
and grammatical meaning), capable of performing a
given syntactic function.
词，今指语言组织中的基础单位，能独立运用，
具有声音、意义和语法功能。《辞海》1984，上
海辞书出版社
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2. Sound and Meaning:
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Introduction of Naturalist and Conventionalist
The difference between the two schools lies in the belief
that sound has or hasn’t direct or necessary connection
with meaning.
The nationalists think the sound must be an echo of the
sense.（音必须成为义的回声。）（p.2)
The conventionalists hold that there is no intrinsic logical
connection or relationship between the sound and the
meaning except onomatopoeia （拟声词）, because:
1)代表同一意义的词在不同的语言（包括同一语言）
中有时具有不同的语音外壳。(p.2)
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(1)His beloved friend has breathed his last(咽气了)
(2)His dear friend has passed away(与世长辞)
(3)His close friend has died(死J，)
(4)His old guy has kicked the bucket．(翘辫子)
(5)His old friend has abandon the world／join the choir
invisible／go to Nirvana／pay the debt of nature(谢世/
归寂／去极乐世界／了结尘缘)
2)代表不同意义的词可以具有相同的语音外壳。
(scale n. 鱼鳞，天平，标度；v.攀登) (p.2)
3)另外也需注意，代表同一意义的词在不同的语言中
有时具有近似的语音外壳。例如：
鸭叫：quack英；couin法；qua qua意；quak quak德
猫 meaw/miaow咪/喵；鸽子：coo-咕咕；牛：moo哞
狼：howl嚎
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Onomatopoeia （拟声词）
Definition: onomatopoeic words are echoic words
whose sound reflects the sense.
Gingle—铃声—铃
pat—轻拍声—轻拍
Ping-pong—乒乓声—乒乓球
Cuckoo—布谷鸟叫声—布谷鸟
Drum—鼓声—鼓
bomb—爆炸声—炸弹
Crash--轰隆声--猛撞,崩溃,破产,垮台
E.g. The thunder crashed overhead.
雷声在头顶隆隆作响。
The boiling water cracked the glass.
滚烫的开水使玻璃杯炸裂了。
Onomatopoeia also exists in Chinese:
请帮我“咔嚓”一张。
两人都同时“哦”了一声。
3. Meaning & Concept
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1) Realtionship between mening and concept
Word
concept
referent（词是通过概念来反
映客观事物或现象的）
Polysemy（一词多义）可表示为：
word
Concept 1
Referent 1
Concept 2
Referent 2
Concept 3
Referent 3
Synonyms 可表示为：
Word 1 + word 2 + word3…
Concept
Referent
Examples
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Crane n. 1.一种长脖子鸟-----鹤
2.一种形似鹤的机械----吊车
Glad, delight and happy是来自不同语源的同义词，
属于同一个概念，指的是同一种情绪与状态。
Please compare the following:
He is a father of two girls (daughters)
Hie is over 30 now. Why not have a girl (girlfriend)?
I’ll have a girl (maid) help you.
4. Lexical Item, Word & Vocabulary
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1)词是构成词汇的基本要素。它们之间是个体与整体的
关系；
2）词项是词典的组成单位，包含词的读音、词性、词
义，语义特征和句法特征等；(P.4)
3）Development of English Vocabulary
(1) - Old English (AD 450-1150) Anglo-Saxon as Old
English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50, 000 to
60, 000 words. It was a highly inflected language just like
modern German.
(2) - Middle English (1150-1500) Although there were
borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly
Germanic. Between 1250 and 1500 about 9000 words of
French origin poured into English. Seventy-five percent of
them are still in use today.
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(3) - Modern English (1500-up to now) Modern
English began with the establishment of printing in
England. Early (1500-1700) and Late (1700-up to the
present) Modern English.
From the 16th century onward, English borrowed
words from an increasing number of languages, For
example, from
French: attach, café and so on;
Italian (mainly in the fields of music, art and
architecture): concert, duet（二重奏）, piano,
soprano（女高音）, solo, tenor（男高音）; model,
bust（半身像）, studio; dome, balcony and so on;
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Spanish: armada（无敌舰队）, cargo, vanilla, cocoa
and cigar;
Portuguese: caste（种姓） and pagoda（塔）;
German: bismuth（铋）, cobalt（钴）, nickel and zinc;
Dutch: dock, freight and keel（平底船）;
Russian: vodka, troika（三驾马车）, ruble and tsar
（沙皇）;
Australian: boomerang（自食其果）, kangaroo and
dingo;
Arabic: sugar, sultan（苏丹） and alcohol;
Indian: coolie（苦力）, cashmere and khaki（卡其布）;
Chinese: tea, typhoon and yamen;
Japanese: kimono （和服）and tycoon（大亨）;
African: gorilla （大猩猩）and zebra（斑马）.
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The rapid growth of present-day English vocabulary
(especially after the World War II) and its causes
1. Marked progress of science and technology:
e.g. Words used in connection with the nuclear bomb:
chain reaction, radioactivity, fall-out（辐射尘）; clean
bomb, overkill, neutron bomb and medium-range ballistic
missiles （中程弹道导弹）and so on.
2. Socio-economic, political and cultural changes:
e.g. New social habits and new living conditions: credit
card, house sitter, microwave oven, instant noodle,
supermarket etc.
Drug addiction: upper (a stimulant drug), downer (a
depressant drug)
Some subculture: hippie, yuppie, gay, lesbian女同性恋 etc.
Women’s Liberation Movement: Ms, chairperson,
spokeswomen, saleswoman, feminism, malechauvinism, and
sexism
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3. The influence of other cultures and languages:
e.g. discotheque from French, sputnik（斯波尼克—
人造卫星） from Russian, mao tai from Chinese and
so on
To sum up, the development of science, the rapid
changes in society, the receptive（善于接受的） and
flexible nature of English with regard to the influence
of other cultures and languages---all these have
resulted in a dramatic increase in vocabulary, a
growth which in turn contributes to the richness and
resourcefulness of the English language.
Chapter II Morphological Structure of
English Words & Word Formation
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Part One Morphological Structure
1. Morphemes
The morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic
unit of language, not divisible or analyzable into
smaller forms.(p.10)
What is usually considered a single word in English
may be composed of one or more morphemes:
One morpheme---nation
Two morphemes---nation-al
Three morphemes---nation-al-ize
Four morphemes---de-nation-al-ize（使…非国有化）
More than four morphemes---de-nation-al-iz-ation
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2. Free morphemes and bound morphemes
A free morpheme自由形位(=实义形位） is one that
can be uttered alone with meaning. It can exist on its
own without a bound morpheme.
A free morpheme is a word, in traditional sense. Man,
faith, read, write, red are free morphemes.
A bound morpheme粘附形位（=语法形位 =屈折形
位）cannot stand by itself as a complete utterance; it
must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or
bound, for instance un- in unkind, -ly in happily and
re- in receive, or the “past-tense” morpheme in words
like work + ed and type + d, or the “plural” morpheme
in words like dog + s and box + es.
Inflectional elements and affixes are bound
morphemes.
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3. Allomorphs (形位变体，语[词]素变体）
“ An allomorph is any of the variant forms of a
morpheme as conditioned（受制约） by position or
adjoining sounds” (Webster’s New World Dictionary of
the American Language).
E.g. the inflectional morpheme (屈折形位）–(e)s of
books, pigs, horses has the same meaning “more than one,”
yet it has three different phonological forms: /-s, -z, iz/.
The allomorphs –ion/ -tion/ -sion/ -ation are the
positional variants of the same suffix. Verbs ending with
the sound /t/ usually take –ion (as invent, invention);
verbs ending with consonants other than /t/, take –tion (as
in describe, description); verbs ending in –ify and –ize
take –ation (as in justify, justification; modernize,
modernization); verbs ending in –d, -de, or –mit, take –
sion (as in expansion, decision, omission).
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Allomorphs also occur among prefixes. Their form
then depends on the first letter of the word to which
they will be added.
A prefix like im- occurs before p, b, or m (e.g.
imperfect, imbalance, immobile); its allomorphs are
ir- before r (e.g. irresponsible); il- before l (e.g.
illogical); in- before all other consonants and vowels
(e.g. inflexible, inexcusable); im-, ir- and il- are thus
allomorphs of the morpheme in-.
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4. Roots and affixes
Alternatively, morphemes may be divided into
roots (or root morphemes) and affixes (or
affixational morphemes).
1） Roots: A root is the basic unchangeable
part of a word, and it conveys the main
lexical meaning of the word.
E.g. work, workable, worker, worked, and
working: in each word the root is work
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(a) Free roots: In English, many roots are free
morphemes, such as boy, moon, walk, black (i.e. they
can stand alone as words). A word consisting of one
free root (or one morpheme) is a simple word.
(b) Bound roots: Quite a number of roots derived
from foreign sources, especially from Greek and
Latin, belong to the class of bound morphemes, such
as tain（包括 ten, tin= hold，表示“拿住” ）
in words like contain（con 全部+tain-->全部拿住->包容）
detain, （de 下+tain-->拿住，拿下-->拘留）
sustain （sus 下面+tain-->在下面拿住[撑住]
, or retain （re 回+tain-->拿回来-->保留） , and
ceive in conceive, deceive or receive.
So bound roots are not words, and so are not free
morphemes; they cannot exist on their own.
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5. Affixes: Affix is a “collective term for type of
formative（构词要素） that can be used only when
added to another morpheme.”
Affixes, therefore, are considered bound morphemes. They may be
divided into inflectional and derivational types.
(a) Inflectional affixes (or inflectional morphemes) （屈
折词缀或屈折词素） :
An inflectional affix serves to express such meanings as plurality,
tense, and the comparative or superlative degree. It does not form a
new word with new lexical meaning when it is added to another
word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is
affixed.
Inflectional affixes have only their particular grammatical meaning,
as with the plural morpheme –s and the past morpheme –ed (or their
variants). They can only be affixed to words of the same word class;
that is, the plural morphemes are affixed to nouns only, and –ed to
verbs only.
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(b) Derivational affixes (or derivational
morphemes)（派生词缀或派生形位）:
They are so called because when they are added to
another morpheme, they “derive” a new word. A few
examples of derivational affixes are: re+write,
mini+car, super+market, modern+ize, mean+ness,
work+er.
Many derivational affixes have a specific lexical
meaning, for instance: -ism means “doctrine or point
of view” as in socialism.
Quite a number of other derivational affixes have
more than one meaning. e.g.: the affix de- means “1.
to undo what has been done, to reverse the action of:
decentralize, decode 2. to remove: debone 3. to
reduce: devalue 4. (esp. in grammar) coming from
something else: a deverbal noun（从动词派生出来
的名词）.
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6. prefixes and suffixes
1）Derivational morphemes or derivational affixes
are commonly subdivided into prefixes and suffixes.
Affixes before the word are called prefixes (as in
supermarket); those after are called suffixes (as in
friendship).
2）Both prefixes and suffixes may be grouped
according to:
（1）. Their linguistic origin:
A. Native affixes are those that existed in the OE
period or were formed from OE words, such as un-,
mis-, be-, out-, over-, -ness, -dom, -hood, -ly, and –er.
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B. Foreign affixes came as a part of loan words from
Latin, Greek, French, or other languages. Examples:
ab-(L), bi-(L), dis-(L), re-(L), kilo-(Gk), poly-(Gk),
mal-(F), -ic(Gk), -ism(Gk), -ist(Gk), -able (F), and –
ize(F).
（2）. Their productivity: Affixes (such as re-, un-, able, -ize) are called productive or living when they
can be used to form new words.
3） Those that are no longer used to form new words
are termed dead or unproductive. Examples of dead
affixes are: for- as in forget, forgive and forbid; withas in withdraw, withhold and withstand, and –ant or –
ent as in servant, different, etc.
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Summary:
1.Words are composed of morphemes. A
morpheme, the minimal meaningful unit of the
English language, possesses both sound and
meaning. An allomorph is any of variant forms of
a morpheme.
2. Morphemes may be classified as free or bound.
A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself as
a complete utterance, while a bound morpheme
cannot exist on its own; it must appear with at least
one other morpheme, free or bound.
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3. Morphemes can also be classified into roots
and affixes. A root carries the main component
of meaning in a word. Roots can be free or
bound morphemes. Free roots can stand alone
as words and provide the language with a basis
for the formation of new words. Bound roots
cannot appear as words in modern English,
although they were once words, nor can they
be used to form new words.
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4. Affixes are bound morphemes, because they are
used only when added to other morphemes.
Affixes are classified into inflectional and
derivational affixes. The former are related to
grammar only. Derivational affixes are subdivided
into prefixes and suffixes, which are related to the
formation of new words. Roots, prefixes and
suffixes are the building blocks with which words
are formed.
5. On morphemic level, words can be classified
into simple, complex and compound words,
according to the number and type of morphemes
they are composed of.
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6. Morphemes are important in the wordbuilding process because the two most central
and productive word-formation process,
compounding and affixation, are related to
morphemes: the former is a combination of
free morphemes, the latter is the addition of
bound morphemes to free ones.
Part Two: Word-formation
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Word-formation is a process of creating new
words by means of existing elements and
according to the patterns and rules of a given
language.
Derivation
Compounding
Conversion
Quantitative changes (blending, clipping, etc.)
1. Derivation
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Derivation is a kind of word-formation when a new
word is formed by adding a derivational morpheme
(usually suffix or prefix) to the root.
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Prefixation is a kind of word-formation when a
new word is formed by adding a prefix to the
root.
Suffixation is a kind of word-formation when a
new word is formed by adding a suffix to the
root.
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Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the root; therefore
the simple word and its prefixed derivative usually belong
to the same part of speech. The group of class-changing
prefixes is rather small, e.g.:
bedeenunantiinterpostpre-
adj. or n. ----v. becalm, belittle, befriend
n.-----v. deform, debug , defrost
n.-----v. enslave, endanger
n.-----v. unleash（解开…皮带）, unearth
n.-----adj. anti-war, anti-carbon 防积炭的
n.-----adj. inter-state, inter-laboratory
n.-----adj. postwar, postliberation
n.-----adj. prewar,preplant
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1. Negative prefixes
give negative, reverse or opposite meaning
a- (apolitical不关心政治的 , asexual无性的)
de- (destabilize动摇, declassify消除…密级)
dis- (disenfranchise剥夺公民权, disinvest减少投
资)
il- (before l: illegal)/ im-(before p,b,m:
imperceptible感觉不到的)/ in-(inadequate)/ ir(before r: irresponsible)
non- (non-economic, non-profit, nonparty, noncolor,
nontaste, nonevent, nonnovel非传统小说)
un- (unacceptable, undemocratic, unbook买来送人
而非自己读的毫无价值的书, unperson政治上失
宠的官员)
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2. Non-negative prefixes
a. Degree, measures or size:
hyper（过多）- (hypercreative, hyperdevoted);
over超过- (overestimate, overcompensate);
semi半- (semiskilled, semi-annual);
super超级- (super-dominant, supercharged);
ultra极端- (ultra-conservative, ultra-secret)
b. Repetition or possibility:
em-(before p,b,m)/en- 使处于某种状态(embark,
enclose)
c. Time, place, order relation:
ex-外，以前的(ex-employer, ex-tenant);
inter-交互(inter-office, inter-government);
post-在… 后(post-budget, post-election); pre- (predelivery, pre-budget)
d. Number and numeral relation:
bi- (bilateral, bilingual);
multi- (multi-dimensional, multi-media);
uni- (unilateral, unisex)
e. Attitude, counteraction:
anti- (anti-EEC, antiestablishment反既成或正统，
antibody);
auto- (autodial, autonomy);
counter-反向(countercharge反诉，反攻, counteroffer);
pro- 赞成(pro-business, pro-liberal)
f. Pejoration:
mis- (miscalculation, mismanage处置不当);
pseudo- (pseudo-random假随机, pseudo-democratic)
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Suffixation is the formation of a new word by adding a
suffix or a combining form to the base, and usually
changing the word-class of the base. e.g. boy---boyish. But
there are exceptions: e.g. boy---boyhood.
1 Noun-forming suffixes
-age (passage, marriage, mileage…);
-ance/-ence附于动词后构成名词或由-ant 结尾的形容词化
出名词 (assistance, predominance, correspondence…);
-dom地位；职务；状况；领域； (freedom, kingdom…)
-ee 受动者 (employee, referee, absentee…);
-eer/er 与 相关的人(engineer, profiteer, manager…);
-ess附在名词后表示女性、阴性 (manageress, heiress…)
-ist (economist…)
-hood 状况、身份(adulthood, singlehood…)
-ing行为、状态、情况 ，技法，材料等building, meaning,
packing, tubings…)
-ion/-sion/-tion/-ition/-ation表示状态、行为、结果
(production, conclusion, realization…)
-ism 信念、状态(consumerism保护消费者利益运动,
perfectionism至善论…)
-ment (agreement, investment…)
-ness 附在形容词后构成抽象名词，表性质、状态或行为
(effectiveness, kindness…)
-ship 身份、技能、状态(ownership, friendship…)
-ty/-ity …性质、状态(productivity, prosperity…)
-ure/-ture动作、结果 (procedure, expenditure…)
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2 Adjective-forming suffixes
-able/-ible “能…的,会…的”： (manageable, permissible)
-al/-tal/-ial/-tial “…的，关于…的”， (economical, statistical)
-ant/-ent进行…动作的；有…的 (redundant, dependent)
-ary与…有关的 (monetary, inflationary)
-ate/-ete “…的”,“和…有关的”,“以…特征的”： (accurate,
complete)
-ful (dutiful, powerful)
-ish “…性质的”,“似…的”,“…一样的”： (snobbish, reddish,
bookish)
-ive与…有关的；具有…性质的；有…倾向的 (effective, extensive)
-less“无”、“缺”、“ 没有” (effortless, powerless)
-like 像…(businesslike, lifelike)
-ly “…性质的” (costly, orderly)
-ous/-ious像…的；具有…特征的；实行…的 (ambiguous,
nutritious)
-some有…倾向的；引起…的 (troublesome, worrisome)
-y “有…的”,“多…的”,“以…为特征的”： (sexy, worthy, daddy)
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3 Verb-forming suffixes
-en与形容词构成动词，表示“使、使成为”；与
名词构成动词，表示“使有、具有” (brighten,
moisten)
-ify/-fy “使”，“使成为”，“使化成”，
“ (intensify, qualify, liquefy溶解、液化, glorify 美
化)
-ize/*-ise表示使成为；表示使…化 (rationalize,
advertise, stabilize)
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*‘ize’ is often used in American English (maximize) as
an alternative spelling of ‘ise’ in British English
(maximise).
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4 Adverb forming suffixes
-ly (frequently, perfectly)
*-ward/-wards 朝向(windward上风的, backward,
homewards)
-wise在某方面；表示方向、位置、方式等 (vote-wise,
percentage-wise, housingwise就住房问题来看)
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*Words formed with ‘ward’ can usually be used as either
adverbs or adjectives. Words formed with ‘wards’ are
mainly used as adverbs (e.g. westward, westwards).
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Latin prefixes
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magn- large, big, great
mal- bad, badly, wrong; ill; evil; abnormal, defective
medi- middle
non- nothing, not
omni- all, every
pro- before; for, in favor of; in front of; in place of
re- back, backward, again
semi- half, partly, twice
sub- under, below
ult- beyond, excessive, to an extreme degree
uni- one, single
ver- true, truth, real, truthfulness
via- way, road, path
Some modern affixes
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1. Mega-(very large)
Megacity特大城市
Megadestruction大毁灭
Megagame大赛
Megastructure超级建筑
Megarich十分富有
Megaversity超级大学
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2.Cyber-(automatic/computerized)
Cyberculture自动化/电脑化社会
Cyberbrain电脑
Cyberart电脑艺术/计算机技术
Cyber-security 网络安全
Cyber-space网络虚拟空间
Cyber-privacy网络隐私
3.Hyper-(super/too much)
Hypermedia超媒体
Hyperlinks超级链接
Hyperfriction过度摩擦
Hyperslow极缓慢的
Hyberverbal说话过多的
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4. Info- (information)
Infotech信息技术
Infocenter信息中心
Infotainment信息娱乐节目
Infomercial信息商业化的
5. nano- (one billionth)
Nanotech纳米技术
Nanofabrication纳米加工
Nanocomputer超高速电脑
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6.techno- (technology)
Technomania技术热
Technophobia恐技术症
Technocracy专家政治
techno-centric 以技术为中心的
7. tele- (long-distance transfer/television)
Telead电话约定广告
Telrbanking电脑化银行业务
Telebus电话叫车/租车
Telecenter远程计算中心
Tele-education远程教育
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8. E- (electronic)
E-mail电子邮件
E-text电子文本
E-zine电子杂志
E-cash电子货币
9. Of- (office)
Oftel办公电话
Oflot公司内部停车场地
Ofbank银行办事处
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10. -bot (robot)
Knowbot智力机器人
Mobot移动机器人
Microbot微型机器人
11. –size (measurements)
Downsize缩小
Upsize放大
Rightsize按比例制作
life-size 按实物大小制作
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12. –ware (articles of the same kind)
Glassware玻璃器皿
Soft/hardware软/硬件
Middleware中间设备
Silverware银器
Warehouse仓库
13.-centric (of the center/taking…as the center)
User-centric以用户为中心的
Male-centric以男士为主的
Net-Centric War 网络中心战
IBM compatible-centric以销售IBM兼容机为主的
Exercises
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1.分析下列单词的构成并翻译成汉语
E.g. des/integra/tion n.蜕变；分解
Dispensable, discancer, degerate, defog,
antilitter, ecocide, discounter, nonpolicy,
derecognition, nonhappening, antiaging,
outplace, outsubmarine, unsell, nondairy,
unnational, unisex
2.What’s the difference between “root” and
“stem”?
2. Conversion - zero derivation
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The process of converting words from one part of speech to
another without adding any derivative element is called
conversion or zero derivation.
"In English every word can be verbed...”
1.名词定语（noun attribute）(p.21)
（1）Semantic relation
A. subject -- object or vice versa
Heat pollution热污染；computer output电脑输出
Road surfacer铺路机； trouble-maker捣乱者
Reform designer改革设计者；loan guarantee贷款担保
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B. adverbial – verb or vice versa
Health food保健食品 (function) ； insulation tape绝
缘胶布
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peace demonstration (purpose) ；TOEFL
preparation
Impulse buying (means, tool); GPS driving利用全球
卫星定位系统驾车
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C. appositive relation
EL Nino phenomenon厄尔尼诺现象；injector razor
弹射剃须刀；his mayor father他那位当市长的父亲
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2.名词定语定语的语法作用（P.22-23)
A.替代形容词或分词定语
B. 替代带’s的生格定语（P.23)
C.替代做定语用的介词短语(P.24)
D.替代分词短语或动词不定式短语或定语
从句（P.24-25)
2. Noun----verb conversion
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1）.名词转化为动词
(a) “to put in/on N”: The noun are usually locative
nouns denoting a place, a container or a specified
location; e.g. can v. as in “The workers canned
apples.” Other examples: bottle, floor（铺地板，打
倒）, cage, corner and pocket（贿赂）.
(b) “to give N, to provide N”: e.g. shelter as in “They
shelter the orphans.” Other examples: coat, wax,
sugar, label, plaster and grease.
(c) “to deprive of N; or to remove the object denoted
by the noun from something”. e.g. weed as in “Bill
weeded the garden.” Other examples: core, dust, skin,
gut （取出内脏）and peel.
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(d) “To…with N”: More precisely, the meaning
of the verb is “to use the referent of the noun as
an instrument for whatever activity particularly
associated with it”; e.g. brake, as in “John
braked the car.”; finger as in “She fingered the
soft silk.” Other examples: screw, glue, elbow,
knife, x-rays and head.
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(e) “to be/act as N with respect to…
1) Verbs from human nouns: e.g. mother as in “She
mothered the orphan.” Other example: nurse, boss,
pilot, referee and usher（引座员-引导、招待）.
2) Verbs from animal nouns: e.g. parrot as in “Tom
parroted what the boss had said.” Some other
examples: ape (to imitate); monkey (to fool about);
dog (to follow closely behind); wolf (to eat greedily).
This area got sardined (packed closely)
3) Verbs from inanimate nouns: e.g. shadow as in
“The police shadowed the suspected spy.” (The police
followed the suspected spy closely like a shadow.)
Other examples: balloon (to swell out like a balloon),
flood, ghost (to act as a ghost), mushroom, and
snowball (to grow quickly in size or importance).
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(f) “to make/change …into N”: e.g. cash as in “Please
cash this check for me.” Other examples: cripple (to
make a cripple of; damage or weaken seriously),
feature (to have a prominent part for主演), orphan,
fool, and group.
(g) “to send/ go by N”: e.g. mail as in “Will you please
mail the parcel?” Other examples: ship, telegraph,
and telephone. Or bicycle as in “We bicycled to the
Summer Palace.” Other examples: motor, boat, ski,
etc.
(h) “to spend the period of time denoted by N”: e.g.
summer as in “We summered in Qingdao.” Other
examples: holiday, winter, weekend, vacation, etc.
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2）.动词转化为名词
(a) “state” (generally ‘state of mind’ or ‘state of sensation’)
e.g. desire as in “He had a desire to be a scientist.” Other
examples: doubt, disgust, want, surprise.
(b) “event/ activity” (from dynamic verbs): The converted
noun indicate a single instance or occasion. e.g. The noun
commute means “an act or instance of commuting” as in “his
usual morning commute to work”. Examples of this kind of
noun usually occur following verbs like give, make, have or
take, and are preceded by the indefinite article:
To give a cry, start, howl, laugh;
To have a look, swim, ride, try, drink;
To make a dash, dive, guess, search, an attempt;
To take a peep, stroll, turn.
Such expressions are informal and colloquial.
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(c) “object or result of V”: e.g. find n. “something
found, esp. sth. valuable or pleasing” as in “This little
restaurant is quite a find.” Other examples: catch (of
fish), answer, cough, import and reject.
(d) “agent of V”: e.g. bore as in “He is a great bore.”
Other examples: cheat, spy, coach, help and rebel.
(e) “ instrument of V”: e.g. cover as in “The cloth is
good cover for the table.” Other examples: cure（治
疗法）, wrap and polish（抛光剂）.
(f) “place of V”: e.g. divide as in “This is the divide
between the two rivers.” More examples: turn, rise,
return and dump（倒垃圾—垃圾场）.
3. Adjective----verb conversion:
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Verbs converted from adjectives fall into two groups:
(a) Intransitive verbs meaning “to be, become, the
quality denoted by the adjective,” such as pale, slim,
sour, mellow（成熟）, dim (out) and idle (away).
(b) Transitive verbs meaning “to cause someone or
something to be, become, the quality denoted by the
adjective,” such as bare（是赤裸）, blunt（使迟
钝）, busy (oneself), free, right, smooth (out) and
warm.
Many verbs may belong to both these groups, e.g.
calm (down), clear, cool, dry, dirty, empty, narrow,
slow (down) and sober (up)（使醒酒）.
4. Adjective----noun conversion:
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(a) Partial conversion: Some adjectives are
used as nouns when preceded by the definite
article such as the poor, the wounded; yet these
converted nouns take on only some of the
feature of the noun; i.e. they do not take plural
and genitive inflections, nor can they be
preceded by determiners like a, this, my, etc.
Therefore, such adjective to noun conversion
is partial. This partial conversion may be
subdivided into following groups:
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1) “Adjectives (including participles) denoting a
quality or a state common to a group of people may
be used without an accompanying noun to denoting
such people as a group.”
e.g. This is a school for the deaf and the blind.
The poor were oppressed by the rich during
pre-liberation days.
2) Adjective ending in -sh, -se and -ch denote peoples
of a nation when they are preceded by the definite
article: e.g. In former days the English and the Scotch
were often at war.
3) Adjectives denoting a quality in the abstract may
be used as nouns, preceded by the definite article.
e.g. Mary has a strong dislike for the sentimental.
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4) Adverbial superlatives are sometimes preceded by
a definite article and used substantively. This usage is
regarded as another case of partial conversion; the
same is true of adverbial superlatives preceded by the
preposition at.
e.g. I will give you a definite answer on Tuesday at
the latest.
5) Instead of being used to denote a group of peoples,
some nouns converted from participles, when
preceded by definite article, can refer to a single
person, such as the accused, the deceased, the
departed, the deserted, and the condemned. (these
nouns are sometimes also used to refer to a group or
class of people.)
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(b) Complete conversion: The conversion of
adjective to noun is complete when the
converted form takes on all the features of a
noun.
Take the adjective native for example; one can
say: a native, two natives, the native’s
language, and a returned native.
Complete conversion of adjectives to noun is
not very productive.
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5. Other conversions:
Tom went home early. (n.---ad.)
I will take a through train. (prep.---adj.)
My father was the then president. (ad.---adj.)
The department head pooh-poohed our plan. (interj---v.)
He knows all the ins and outs of the whole business. (ad.--n.)
Is Joan’s new baby a he? (pron.---n.)
His talk contains too many ifs and buts. (conj.---n.)
She feels very under-the weather. (phrase---adj.)
This book is a must for the students of physics. (aux. v.--n.)
Notice that the above conversion are not very common.