* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download Chapter 50 - An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere The
Survey
Document related concepts
Storage effect wikipedia , lookup
Occupancy–abundance relationship wikipedia , lookup
Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project wikipedia , lookup
Introduced species wikipedia , lookup
Island restoration wikipedia , lookup
Soundscape ecology wikipedia , lookup
Restoration ecology wikipedia , lookup
Ecological fitting wikipedia , lookup
Biodiversity action plan wikipedia , lookup
Habitat conservation wikipedia , lookup
Latitudinal gradients in species diversity wikipedia , lookup
Biogeography wikipedia , lookup
Reconciliation ecology wikipedia , lookup
Transcript
Chapter 50 – An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere I. The Scope of Ecology A. Definition of Ecology: The Study of interactions between organisms and their environment. 1. Biotic Components 2. Abiotic Components B. What sorts of things does ecology study (scope)? 1. Organismal: 2. Population: 3. Community: 4. Ecosystem: 5. Biosphere: II. Factors that Affect Distribution of Oranisms A. Biogeography: the study of the past and present distribution of individual species B. Transplanted Species: Introduced Species 1. Examples: African Honeybee, Zebra Mussel C. Biotic Factors that can affect distribution D. Abiotic Factors 1. Climate and Biomes 2. Seasons and Weather E. Biomes 1. Freshwater and Marine a) Photic and aphotic zones b) Benthic Zone c) Oligotrophic (Lake Tahoe) versus Eutrophic (Clear Lake) d) Wetland e) Intertidal (marine) f) Reefs (marine) g) Pelagic (marine) 2. Tropical Rainforest: 3. Desert: 4. Savanna: 5. Temperate Deciduous Rainforest 6. Taiga (coniferous forest) 7. Tundra Chapter 51 – Behavioral Biology I. Introduction A. What is behavior: What an animal does and how it does it (includes motor and no-motor – learning and memory) B. Behavior is both Nature (Genetic) and Nurture (Environmental) 1. Innate behavior – performing behaviors with out any specific experiences (developmentally fixed) a) aggression in stickle back fish, simple visual clue 2. Behavioral Ecology emphasizes evolutionary hypothesis a) Natural selection will favor behavioral patterns that enhance chance of survival II. Learning A. Definition: Modification of behavior resulting from specific experiences B. Maturation (different than learning), behavior may change because of ongoing developmental changes. C. Types of Learning 1. Habituation: Simple type of learning. Involves a loss of responsiveness to stimuli that convey little or no information. Example: Alarm Calls. If no danger then, won’t respond. 2. Imprinting: Learning that is limited to a specific time period, generally irreversible. a) Example: Geese following mother 3. Associative Learning: learning to associate one stimulus with another a) Classic Conditioning: Example: Pavlov b) Operant Conditioning (trial and error): Associates one of its own behaviors with a reward or punishment – tends to repeat or avoid behavior (1) Example: Skinner 4. Play: practice of goal directed behavior 5. Cognition: ability of animal’s nervous system to perceive, store, process and use information gathered by sensory receptors. a) Problem solving: more advanced type of learning III. Movement A. Simple Types. Kinesis versus Taxis B. More Complex 1. Use of land marks to find direction 2. Cognitive map. Birds (Jays): stores food in patterns 3. Migration Behavior (movement over long distances) a) Complex series of clues can be used (1) Magnetic, sun, stars, chemical IV. Sociobiology: interpretation of social behavior A. Agonistic: a contest to gain access to some resource (threatening or submissive) 1. Can be ritual (symbolic activity) B. Dominance Heirarchies 1. Pecking Order. Alpha is top ranked, beta is second ranked. Omega is lowest ranked. C. Territory area that animal will defend. D. Courtship: behavior that leads up to mating V. Communication A. Can use any number of methods: visual, auditory, chemical, tactile and electrical B. Pheremones (odors – chemicals) C. Altruism: Unselfish Behaviors, can be linked to inclusive fitness. Chapter 52 – Population Ecology I. Characteristics of Populations A. Definition: A group of individuals of a single species that simultaneously occupy the same general area (same resources, influenced by same environmental factors, and have a high likelihood of breeding and interacting with each other. B. Density: number of individuals per unit of area/volume C. Dispersion: pattern or spacing among individuals 1. clumped, uniform, random D. Demography: study of vital statistics that affect population size E. Tools that are used 1. 2. 3. Life Table Survivorship curve Reproductive Table II. Life Histories A. Big-Bang Reproduction a.k.a. semelparity (example: salmon). B. Repeated Reproduction a.k.a. iteroparity C. Resources determine trade-offs between investments in reproduction and survival III. Population Growth A. Basic Formula Change in population (r) = births(b) – deaths (d) B. ZPG = Zero Population Growth C. Carrying Capacity :maximum population size that a particular environment can support at a particular time with no degradation to the habitat. Symbol K. D. Two different Strategies 1. K-selection (density dependent). Influenced more by density, tries to avoid going close to K. 2. r-selection (density independent) Influenced by favorable environmental factors (low competition) E. Negative Feedback prevents unlimited population growth 1. Crowding: make less seeds, birds lay less eggs, mammals more aggressive (stress) F. Human PG 1. Are we heading towards K? 2. Age Structure Tables Chapter 53 – Community Ecology I. Introduction A. Definition: An Assemblage of a species living close enough together for potential interaction. B. Species Richness depends on relative abundance of different species II. Interspecific Interactions A. Competition (-/-) 1. Ecological Niche: Sum of a species use of the biotic and abiotic resources (what it eats, where it lives, what it does). a) Fundamental: What it CAN use b) Realized: What it actually does use B. Predation (+/-) [carnivory, herbivory, and parasitism] 1. Plant defenses: toxins, or physical 2. Animals: fleeing, coloration (camouflage, aposematic “warning coloration,” Batesian mimicry: harmless species imitates a harmful one Mullerian mimicry. 3. Parasites (endo or ecto). Parisitoidism: lay egss inside C. Mutualism (+/+) Mutual symbiosis D. Commensalism (+/0). Example: Hitchhikers E. Coevolution: reciprocal evolutionary adaptations of two interacting species III. Trophic Structures A. Food Webs and Food Chains B. Dominant Species: highest biomass C. Keystone: biggest influence IV. Disturbance and Succession A. Primary Succession: When there is not even soil left (glacier, volcano) B. Secondary Succession: When there was an existing community that has been wiped out (fire) Chapter 54 - Ecosystems I. Introduction A. Definition: All organisms living in a community as well as all the abiotic factors with which they interact. B. Basic components: Energy machines and matter processors. Ecosystems can be grouped by trophic levels. II. Primary Productiviy: use of light to synthesize energy rich organic molecules which can be broken down to generate ATP. 1. Rainforests have high PP, Tundra and Desert Low PP. Open ocean is most, but because it’s so broad. B. Trophic Efficiency: The percentage of production transferred from one trophic level to the next. Fraction of how much energy is passed on. Basically 10% from each link is passed on. Massive loss from bottom to top level consumers. III. Chemical Cycling A. Water Cycle B. Nitrogen Cycle C. Carbon Cycle D. Phosphorous Cycle IV. Human Impact A. Eutrophication B. Biological Magnification C. CO2 increases has led to Greenhouse Effect (global warming) D. Ozone Depletion Caused by (CFC’s) Chapter 55 – Conservation Biology I. Biodiversity Crisis A. Loss of genetic diversity, species diversity, ecosystem diversity B. Four Main Treats 1. Habitat Destruction 2. Introduced Species 3. Over Exploitation 4. Disruption of Food Chains C. Small Populations can be forced into an Extinction Vortex