Download Chapter 50 - An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere The

Chapter 50 – An Introduction to Ecology and the Biosphere
I.
The Scope of Ecology
A. Definition of Ecology: The Study of interactions between
organisms and their environment.
1. Biotic Components
2. Abiotic Components
B. What sorts of things does ecology study (scope)?
1. Organismal:
2. Population:
3. Community:
4. Ecosystem:
5. Biosphere:
II. Factors that Affect Distribution of Oranisms
A. Biogeography: the study of the past and present distribution
of individual species
B. Transplanted Species: Introduced Species
1. Examples: African Honeybee, Zebra Mussel
C. Biotic Factors that can affect distribution
D. Abiotic Factors
1. Climate and Biomes
2. Seasons and Weather
E. Biomes
1. Freshwater and Marine
a) Photic and aphotic zones
b) Benthic Zone
c) Oligotrophic (Lake Tahoe) versus
Eutrophic (Clear Lake)
d) Wetland
e) Intertidal (marine)
f) Reefs (marine)
g) Pelagic (marine)
2. Tropical Rainforest:
3. Desert:
4. Savanna:
5. Temperate Deciduous Rainforest
6. Taiga (coniferous forest)
7. Tundra
Chapter 51 – Behavioral Biology
I.
Introduction
A. What is behavior: What an animal does and how it does it
(includes motor and no-motor – learning and memory)
B. Behavior is both Nature (Genetic) and Nurture
(Environmental)
1. Innate behavior – performing behaviors with out any
specific experiences (developmentally fixed)
a) aggression in stickle back fish, simple
visual clue
2. Behavioral Ecology emphasizes evolutionary
hypothesis
a) Natural selection will favor behavioral
patterns that enhance chance of survival
II. Learning
A. Definition: Modification of behavior resulting from specific
experiences
B. Maturation (different than learning), behavior may change
because of ongoing developmental changes.
C. Types of Learning
1. Habituation: Simple type of learning. Involves a
loss of responsiveness to stimuli that convey little or no
information. Example: Alarm Calls. If no danger then,
won’t respond.
2. Imprinting: Learning that is limited to a specific
time period, generally irreversible.
a) Example: Geese following mother
3. Associative Learning: learning to associate one
stimulus with another
a) Classic Conditioning: Example: Pavlov
b) Operant Conditioning (trial and error):
Associates one of its own behaviors with a
reward or punishment – tends to repeat or avoid
behavior
(1) Example: Skinner
4. Play: practice of goal directed behavior
5. Cognition: ability of animal’s nervous system to
perceive, store, process and use information gathered by
sensory receptors.
a) Problem solving: more advanced type of
learning
III.
Movement
A. Simple Types. Kinesis versus Taxis
B. More Complex
1. Use of land marks to find direction
2. Cognitive map. Birds (Jays): stores food in patterns
3. Migration Behavior (movement over long distances)
a) Complex series of clues can be used
(1) Magnetic, sun, stars, chemical
IV.
Sociobiology: interpretation of social behavior
A. Agonistic: a contest to gain access to some resource
(threatening or submissive)
1. Can be ritual (symbolic activity)
B. Dominance Heirarchies
1. Pecking Order. Alpha is top ranked, beta is second
ranked. Omega is lowest ranked.
C. Territory area that animal will defend.
D. Courtship: behavior that leads up to mating
V.
Communication
A. Can use any number of methods: visual, auditory, chemical,
tactile and electrical
B. Pheremones (odors – chemicals)
C. Altruism: Unselfish Behaviors, can be linked to inclusive
fitness.
Chapter 52 – Population Ecology
I.
Characteristics of Populations
A. Definition: A group of individuals of a single species that
simultaneously occupy the same general area (same resources,
influenced by same environmental factors, and have a high
likelihood of breeding and interacting with each other.
B. Density: number of individuals per unit of area/volume
C. Dispersion: pattern or spacing among individuals
1. clumped, uniform, random
D. Demography: study of vital statistics that affect population
size
E. Tools that are used
1.
2.
3.
Life Table
Survivorship curve
Reproductive Table
II. Life Histories
A. Big-Bang Reproduction a.k.a. semelparity (example: salmon).
B. Repeated Reproduction a.k.a. iteroparity
C. Resources determine trade-offs between investments in
reproduction and survival
III.
Population Growth
A. Basic Formula Change in population (r) = births(b) – deaths
(d)
B. ZPG = Zero Population Growth
C. Carrying Capacity :maximum population size that a particular
environment can support at a particular time with no degradation
to the habitat. Symbol K.
D. Two different Strategies
1. K-selection (density dependent). Influenced more
by density, tries to avoid going close to K.
2. r-selection (density independent) Influenced by
favorable environmental factors (low competition)
E. Negative Feedback prevents unlimited population growth
1. Crowding: make less seeds, birds lay less eggs,
mammals more aggressive (stress)
F. Human PG
1. Are we heading towards K?
2. Age Structure Tables
Chapter 53 – Community Ecology
I.
Introduction
A. Definition: An Assemblage of a species living close enough
together for potential interaction.
B. Species Richness depends on relative abundance of different
species
II. Interspecific Interactions
A. Competition (-/-)
1. Ecological Niche: Sum of a species use of the biotic
and abiotic resources (what it eats, where it lives, what it
does).
a) Fundamental: What it CAN use
b) Realized: What it actually does use
B. Predation (+/-) [carnivory, herbivory, and parasitism]
1. Plant defenses: toxins, or physical
2. Animals: fleeing, coloration (camouflage,
aposematic “warning coloration,” Batesian mimicry:
harmless species imitates a harmful one Mullerian
mimicry.
3. Parasites (endo or ecto). Parisitoidism: lay egss
inside
C. Mutualism (+/+) Mutual symbiosis
D. Commensalism (+/0). Example: Hitchhikers
E. Coevolution: reciprocal evolutionary adaptations of two
interacting species
III.
Trophic Structures
A. Food Webs and Food Chains
B. Dominant Species: highest biomass
C. Keystone: biggest influence
IV.
Disturbance and Succession
A. Primary Succession: When there is not even soil left (glacier,
volcano)
B. Secondary Succession: When there was an existing
community that has been wiped out (fire)
Chapter 54 - Ecosystems
I.
Introduction
A. Definition: All organisms living in a community as well as
all the abiotic factors with which they interact.
B. Basic components: Energy machines and matter processors.
Ecosystems can be grouped by trophic levels.
II. Primary Productiviy:
use of light to synthesize energy rich organic
molecules which can be broken down to generate ATP.
1. Rainforests have high PP, Tundra and Desert Low
PP. Open ocean is most, but because it’s so broad.
B. Trophic Efficiency: The percentage of production transferred
from one trophic level to the next. Fraction of how much energy
is passed on. Basically 10% from each link is passed on. Massive
loss from bottom to top level consumers.
III.
Chemical Cycling
A. Water Cycle
B. Nitrogen Cycle
C. Carbon Cycle
D. Phosphorous Cycle
IV.
Human Impact
A. Eutrophication
B. Biological Magnification
C. CO2 increases has led to Greenhouse Effect (global warming)
D. Ozone Depletion Caused by (CFC’s)
Chapter 55 – Conservation Biology
I.
Biodiversity Crisis
A. Loss of genetic diversity, species diversity, ecosystem
diversity
B. Four Main Treats
1. Habitat Destruction
2. Introduced Species
3. Over Exploitation
4. Disruption of Food Chains
C. Small Populations can be forced into an Extinction Vortex