Download Outline the causes of the Battle of Marathon

Outline the causes of the Battle of Marathon. Evaluate the historical significance of the
attack on Athens at Marathon in 490BC.
Greek city states such as Athens and Sparta often among themselves, despite the potential
and dangerous foreign enemies like Persia being out their doorstep. During the 5th century
BC, Greek city states and the Persian Empire clashed in a series of wars. These wars between
Greece and Persia were known as the Greco-Persian Wars and lasted until 448 BC.
Historically, the Greek armies were grossly outnumbered and small in comparison to the
Persian army which was enormous. Considered as underdogs throughout the course of the
war, the Greeks were ruthless, inexorable and unyielding in the face of the powerful Persians.
Of all conflicts fought between the Greeks and Persians, the Battle at Marathon; much
acclaimed for its military engagements and the aftermath of the war; it would be remembered
as one of the most epic of battles fought of antiquity.
The Battle of Marathon (490 BC) was the culmination of King Darius I of Persia's first major
attempt to conquer the remainder of the Greeks and add them to the Persian Empire, thereby
securing the weakest portion of his Western border.1
Persia had several reasons for their attack on Athens at Marathon. Herodotus largely claims
that it was revenge that pushed Darius to war with the Greek states.2 Darius understood the
capture of Greece as an economic opportunity. The capture of Athens would have then given
Darius traction on Greece. Lastly, Persian influence could be extended over the whole of
Greece as a result of Persian conquest, thus leading to Persia’s step official steps of western
expansion.
1
2
Battles: Marathon, http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/History/Battles/Marathon.html, accessed on 1/09/08
Rise and Fall Heaven: Greek History, http://raf.heavengames.com/history/civilization/greek/page4, accessed
on 3/09/08
Darius planned his attack by landing his army at Marathon and from there march on to
Athens. Athens was in dire need of help and therefore asked help from Sparta. Sparta
subsequently sent 600 hoplites to join Athens’s 9000 hoplites. The Greek army, led by War
Archon Callimachus and Miltiades, faced Persia’s 20 000 infantry, 5000 cavalry, 200
triremes and 40 000 sailors.
In due course, the Greeks lined up across the plain of Marathon. Their tactic was to have
further hoplites on the flanks other than the centre. The rights flanks were commanded by
Callimachus and the Plateans commanding the left. With this tactic, the mighty Persians were
trounced by the Greeks, though in the centre; Greek defence had broken through. However,
with strong tactics, leadership, and skill, Persian offence collapsed. Furthermore, it was a
defeat for Persia and victory for the Greeks. Amounting to the causalities, the Persians
amounted 6400 dead whereas 192 for the Greeks. This victory was one of the greatest battles
ever fought by the Greeks.
The Battle of Marathon is considered as one of the most significant wars fought between
Greece and Persia. Marathon was decisive, yet important for Greek history. Nevertheless, it
was a defining moment for Greece itself. The Athenians viewed the war of great historical
significance to the history of western civilisation because of its wondrous achievements. It
prompted the start of an epoch that would last for many generations.
Most of what is known of this battle comes from the Greek historian Herodotus in his
Histories.3 Herodotus, a Greek historian, recorded much of the conflicts between the two
differing cultures. Herodotus’ writings were the only source for the account of the war and
3
Battle of Marathon, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon, accessed on 4/09/08
his findings clearly portray the extent of the war at Marathon. Thus, his findings are
important in trying to portray the war’s significance.
The effects of the Battle at Marathon were immense for the two cultures. Persia’s defeat was
heartbreaking whereas Greek victory was overwhelming. The Battle of Marathon was the
first real check on Persia’s plans for western expansion.4 Western expansion was ideal for the
accumulation of greater resources, manual labour for slaves, wealth and so on. Therefore, the
war had an absolute enormous effect on Persia’s plans for western expansion. The mighty
Persians were bested on land and sea by small Greek-city states. However, the defeat was
only temporary setback and did not deter them from making another attempt.5 In an attempt
to rectify mistakes, the Persians changed enormously their battle strategies and usual war
preparations. Subsequently, the result of the war made the Persians hungrier than ever to
bring about the downfall of Greece. All in all, as the reasons mentioned, the war was
significant for the Persians merely on the fact that vast changes had to be implemented on
their battle strategies. As suggested, if this wasn’t the case at Marathon, where the Persians, if
had won, could have achieved their goals on western expansion.
On the Athenian point of view, the victory can be described as ‘inspirational’, ‘decisive’,
‘immense’, ‘massive’ and even ‘monumental’. The small Greek-city states had attested their
ability to fight and win against all odds of the Persian army. As Cornelius Nepos states:
4
P. Bradley, Ancient Greece Using Evidence, David Patterson, Edward Arnold (Australia) Pty Ltd, 1988, p 128
5
Ibid
‘Than this battle there has hitherto been none more glorious; for never did so small a band
overthrow so numerous a host’ (Miltiades chapter IV, translated by the Rev. John Selby
Watson, MA).6
Cornelius Nepos describes the battle as being ‘none more glorious’ to ‘overthrow so
numerous a host’. Accordingly, Persian defeat was a huge blow as Cornelius Nepos describes
it. Their defeat brought numerous city-states into question referring to their submission to
Persia. As a result, many city-states abandoned their submission to Persia and joined forces
with the Athenians and Spartans. The submission of city-states from Persia to Greece was
important for a number of reasons. The Athenian victory highlighted the significance of the
battle because small city-states (Athens) had toppled powerful emergences like Persia.
Usually, as predicted by all, the bigger army had bested over the small, though, at Marathon
this wasn’t the case. The outcome of Marathon was therefore significant for all Athenians,
and most importantly the submission of city-states to Greece had ensured the rise of a prolific
Greek culture (age).
With this in mind, the Greeks no longer entrusted upon the belief that the Persian Empire was
unbeatable. The battle showcased the lethal damage of Greek hoplites to the Persian army.
This realisation therefore saw tremendous pride, self-confidence and faith in their democratic
system and verified that a nation so powerful could be defeated. According to J.F.C. Fuller,
he states:
‘Their victory endowed the Greeks with a faith in their destiny that was to endure for three
centuries, during which western culture was born’ (J.F.C. Fuller, A Military History of the
Western World).7
6
Miltiades chapter IV, translated by the Rev. John Selby Watson, MA, accessed on 25/08/08
Consequently, as J.F.C. Fuller states – the victory gave rise to an epoch of Greek culture.
J.F.C. Fuller also resonates over John Stuart Mill's opinion that Marathon was more
important than the Battle of Hastings – event of British history. This epoch of Greek culture
had profound effects on western civilization. These effects amounted heights in literature, in
philosophy and politics, visual and dramatic arts, in sport, and many other aspects of human
life. As a result, this victory was highly significant in revealing the reverberation of Greek
culture. Today, Greek culture is evident in everybody’s consciousness. It is still evident
today. For example: Greek literature, Greek playwright Aeschylus and the marathon run at
the Olympics Games have all come from the flourish of Greek culture and is still today
revered by all.
Conversely, if the battle had gone the other way, that is, with the Greek army defeated at
Marathon; the Greeks would therefore been under the Persian Empire rule. If this happened,
what would happen to the Greek culture? Would Greek culture ever exist today? And would
Greek defeat see the rise of Persian culture? In summation, this outlook of the war in the
different perspective would have changed the whole stance of world history. With this in
mind, there would not have been a flourish of Greek culture. Art, literature, architecture,
visual and dramatic arts, philosophy and politics, sport, and other forms of art presiding
Greek culture would not have been established. The Greek culture which have spanned out
right now to the present day would not exist today. The Greek playwright, Aeschylus was
present at the battle. His death at Marathon would have changed the whole outlook of Greek
tragedy. Many of Aeschylus' works were influenced by the Persian invasion of Greece. His
play The Persians remains a quintessential primary source of information about this period in
7
J.F.C. Fuller, A Military History of the Western World, cited in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boedrzomia,
accessed on 3/09/08
Greek history. 8 The war was so important to Greeks and to Aeschylus himself that, upon his
death around 456 BC, his epitaph included a reference to his participation in the Greek
victory at Marathon but not to his success as a playwright.9 Art and literature would be then
very different if Aeschylus had died at Marathon. As a result, this is therefore one of the most
vital aspects of Marathon that held to great historical significance in antiquity.
According to John Stuart Mill, he describes the Battle of Marathon as more important than
the Battle of Hastings because of its unforeseen effects upon Greek civilisation. As
previously stated, this included literature, the visual and dramatic arts, in philosophy and
politics, in sport, and in many other aspects of human life.
The poet Pindar lauded Athens as ‘Bulwark of Hellas … city of godlike men’. Marathon
loomed large in the Athenian psyche; the men of Marathon were regarded as heroes. As
Australia remembers and honours the original ANZACS, so do the Athenians and the rest of
Greece, honouring the Marathon fighters. As previously mentioned, this too is an important
aspect of historical significance at Marathon.
Their victory over the Persian Empire was instrumental. The Greeks developed growing
confidence through their ability to defend themselves. In addition, Athenian confidence
increased. Obtaining such confidence was very important and this would see Greek-city
states further enhance their ability to defend themselves in future battles. Therefore, the
association at Marathon was vital in unveiling this confidence in every Athenian.
Marathon was also important in unveiling the source of Greek religion. This was because that
their link with their gods was further enhanced. The Athenians rely heavily on their Gods for
8
Aeschylus, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeschylus, accessed on 3/09/08
9
Ibid
assistance during the difficult times. Thus, Athenians believed that the gods had been with
them during battle. In gratitude of their victory, the Athenians credited the gods Athena,
Apollo and Artemis for their assistance. In honour and thanks for their assistance, the
Boedromia, was established. Boedromia, a festival celebrated at Athens on the seventh day of
the month of Boëdromion, in honour of Apollo Boëdromius.10 The name Boëdromius, by
which Apollo was called in Boeotia and other parts of Greece, seems to indicate that by this
festival he was honoured as a martial god, who either by his actual presence or by his oracles
afforded assistance in the dangers of war.11 Thus, through this understanding of Marathon, it
can be said that religion strengthened the beliefs of the Athenians and enhanced their ties
with their gods, and thus, in turn brought about great significance of the war.
With confidence, rise as a prominent military head, faith, prestige and valour, Marathon was
largely viewed as a triumph of democracy over tyranny. The idea that a small contingent of
loyal, freedom loving citizens could hold off one of the largest and most powerful armies of
the day has always captivated western thought.12 In 487 BC would notice constitutional
changes. These changes would lessen the authority of traditional positions and increase the
power of the people. Strategoi was elected by the whole people whereas archons were chosen
by lot. The strategoi had political as well as military importance with access to the ekklesia
(assembly).13 Thus, strategoi gradually replaced the archons in importance14 and therefore,
greatly increasing in importance.
10
Boedromia, http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Boedromia.html,
accessed on 3/09/08
11
Ibid
12
Rise and Fall Heaven: Greek History, http://raf.heavengames.com/history/civilization/greek/page4, accessed
on 4/09/08
13
Strategos, http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/governmen1/g/Strategos.htm, accessed on 4/09/08
As democracy triumphed, freedom also triumphed too. Marathon became a symbol of
Greece’s commitment to freedom. Freedom to rule themselves in their own way was the
motivating factor behind the young democracy’s stand.15 With the desire to rule themselves
and protect their infant democracy, freedom and democracy became further linked.
The Athenian victory was overwhelming and substantiated power – the Athenians gained
prestige for defeat of the barbarian. Prestige marked the beginning of her emergence as the
leading state in Greece. As described by Pindar, the ‘men of Marathon’ took on heroic
proportions. For example: A coin minted in 486 commemorates the great Athenian victory at
Marathon. Athenian victory captured the imagination of the world. The most obvious
example of this is the Marathon race (run), which takes its name from the battle, celebrating
the journey of the Greek hoplite that brought the joyful news of victory to Athens. This story
of the Greek hoplite, known as Phiedippides, although appearing fictional, gave climb to the
name of the track and field event which in turn was introduced in the 1896 Olympic Games at
Athens. According to Herodotus, he recorded this:
‘And first, before they left the city, the generals sent off to Sparta a herald, one Pheidippides,
who was by birth an Athenian, and by profession and practice a trained runner…’.16
Pheidippides became a prominent figure in Greek culture with his run at Marathon. The long
run of Pheidippides became the inspiration for the marathon race, which was featured at the
1896 Olympic Games for the first time. Nowadays, the modern marathon distance is based on
the run of Pheidippides, that is, a 26 mile run. The Marathon run was inevitably important
because of its great impact to the world of sport.
14
Ibid
15
P. Bradley, Ancient Greece Using Evidence, David Patterson, Edward Arnold (Australia) Pty Ltd, 1988, p 128
16
Herodotus, cited in Your Ancient Greece Homework Helper, Histories Book II, 5th century BC
With Pheidippides becoming famous and capturing the imagination of the world, the battle
immortalized the name of such Miltiades; Greek commander. Miltiades was regarded a ‘hero’
of Marathon because of his wide military contributions. Miltiades utilised the ‘double
envelopment’ strategy. The maneuver is mostly self-explanatory; the flanks of the opponent
are attacked simultaneously in a pinching motion after the opponent has advanced towards
the centre of an army which is responding by moving its outside forces to the enemy's flanks,
in order to surround it.17 At the same time, a second layer of pincers attacks on the more
extreme flanks, so as to prevent any attempts to reinforce the target unit.18 Miltiades,
knowing tactics of the Persian army used this ‘double envelopment’ strategy which caused
the downfall of the Persian Empire. Consequently, the ‘double envelopment’ strategy would
see the inclusion of it in such tactics used by armies later on. For example: the ‘double
envelopment’ strategy was used at the Battle of Tannenberg during World War I. Therefore,
it is much acclaimed that the ‘double envelopment’ strategy was important in portraying the
historical significance of Marathon because it was one of history’s famous military
engagements.
As a result of their triumph at Marathon, it was nonetheless an important part of world
history. The Battle of Marathon was a pivotal encounter where the Greeks defeated the
Persians. Being so vastly outnumbered and odds all going to the way of the Persians, Greece
had overlooked this perspective. Their victory waged for numerous monuments such as
buildings, paintings and sculpture were erected at Athens, at Marathon and at Delphi to
remind the Athenians and the rest of the Greeks of Athenian victory and pre-eminence. The
Painted Stoa in the Agora of Athens is an example of a painting fresco that depicts the
NationMaster – Encyclopaedia: Double Envelopment, http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Doubleenvelopment , accessed on 4/09/08
17
18
Ibid
various stages of the battle. In essence for the first time, the Athenian victory gave rise to the
prolific ‘age’ of Greek culture. The Classical Period or Golden age of Greece, from around
500 to 300 BC, has given us the great monuments, art, philosophy, architecture and literature
which are the building blocks of our own civilization.19 As a result, the epoch of Greek
culture was instrumental in valuing the historical significance at Marathon. Athenian
confidence and prestige hyped significance at Marathon. In addition, the Battle Marathon was
a major accomplishment that awarded its place in world history.
19
The Golden Age of Greece, http://www.ahistoryofgreece.com/goldenage.htm, accessed on 1/09/08
BIBLIOGRAPHY
D. Clare, John (2004) Your Ancient Greece: Homework Helper, ticktock Entertainment Ltd,
Great Britain
Bradley, Pamela (1998) Ancient Greece: Using Evidence, Edward Arnold (Australia) Pty
Ltd, Sydney
ahistoryofgreece.com, The Golden Age of Greece,
http://www.ahistoryofgreece.com/goldenage.htm, accessed on 1/09/08
Source – Herodotus, Histories Book II, 5th century BC
Thucydides, cited in Historical Periods, Peloponnesian War, II, 34-5
nationmaster.com, NationMaster – Encyclopaedia: Double Envelopment,
http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Double-envelopment , accessed on 4/09/08
penelope.uchicago.edu, Boedromia,
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Boedromia.html,
accessed on 3/09/08
en.wikipedia.org, J.F.C. Fuller, A Military History of the Western World, cited in
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boedrzomia, accessed on 3/09/08
en.wikipedia.org, Aeschylus, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeschylus, accessed on 3/09/08
n.wikipedia.org, Battle of Marathon, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon,
accessed on 4/09/08
Miltiades chapter IV, translated by the Rev. John Selby Watson, MA, accessed on 25/08/08
mlahanas.de, Battles: Marathon,
http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/History/Battles/Marathon.html, accessed on 1/09/08
raf.heavengames.com, Rise and Fall Heaven: Greek History,
http://raf.heavengames.com/history/civilization/greek/page4, accessed on 3/09/08
ancienthistory.about.com, Strategos,
http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/governmen1/g/Strategos.htm, accessed on 4/09/08