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Pre-AP World History 11
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Chapter 11: The Americas on the Eve of Invasion
Indian = term used to describe the peoples of America; misnamed by Christopher Columbus as
he was attempting to reach the Indies
Pre-Columbian = refers to North and South America before the arrival of Columbus (western
influence)
I.
Post Classical Mesoamerica {1000 - 1500 CE}
A. The Toltec Heritage
1. Toltecs = nomadic peoples established in central Mexico
A. Capital city of Tula
B. Toltec culture = combination of characteristics of sedentary peoples
and militaristic tendencies
1. Culture of war and sacrifice
C. Toplitzin = most influential Toltec leader
1. Also a priest dedicated to the God Quetzalcoatl
A. Feathered serpent, later confused with the god himself
D. Toltec culture spread as far as Yucatan peninsula and Guatemala
E. Scholars unsure as to whether or not they had contact with Hopewell
tribes in Ohio and Mississippi river valleys
2. Empire collapses when Tula is sacked by northern invaders in 1150
B. Aztec Rise to Power
1. Aztecs emerge in central Mexico after fall of Toltecs
A. Along the shore of Lake Texcoco
1. First emerged as regional city-state
B. Viciously militant tribe
1. Religiously fervent; conducted human sacrifices
2. Established capital city at Tenochtitlan on Lake Texcoco c. 1325
A. Eagle perched on a cactus with a serpent in its beak
B. Quickly form alliances with other local city states
3. Forced conquered peoples to surrender lands, pay tribute, and provide
military service
4. Region eventually becomes united under supreme Aztec ruler
A. Authority of civil power and representative of the gods
1. Embraces use of human sacrifice (prisoners of war)
C. Religion and the Idealology of Conquest
1. Religion serves as integrating force of unification and oppression
A. Polytheistic: gods of rain, water, fire, food, sun, etc.
B. Atleast 128 religious deities in Aztec religion; each with female
counterpart
1. Served as patrons of cities, tribes, occupations, etc.
2. Honored through yearly festivals
A. 3 major cults
1. Fertility/agriculture
2. Creation
3. Warfare/sacrifice
3. Huitzilopochtli = patron god of Aztec tribe
A. Warrior god of the sun; fed through human sacrifice
2. Sacrifice used to feed religion as well as method of intimidation
D. Tenochtitlan: the foundation of heaven
1. Capital city considered a sacred place; “foundation of heaven”
A. Metropolis with palaces and temples
B. Population of 150,000
C. Set in middle of Lake Texcoco
1. Connected to shore by 4 causeways
2. Foundation for modern day Mexico city
E. Feeding the people: the economy of the empire
1. Chinampas = beds of aquatic weeds, mud, and earth planted in frames of
canes and rooted to the lake floor
A. Formed artificial floating islands used for farming
2. Most trade conducted through barter
A. Cocoa beans and gold dust sometimes used for currency
3. Pochteca = special merchant class; dominate both local and long distance
trade
4. State controlled use and distribution of commodities
II.
Aztec Society in Transition
A. Widening social gulf
1. Calpulli expand from clans into a form of social residential organization
A. Includes neighbors, allies, and dependents
B. Distributed land to heads of households, organized local militia during
war, maintained school and temples
1. Governed by councils of family heads
A. Not all families in a calpulli were equal
B. Not all calpullis had equal status
2. Eventual emergence of nobility within calpulli
3. Eventually overshadowed by military and administrative
nobility
C. Nobles dominated military bureaucracy and clergy positions
1. Lower classes could reach noble status rarely
A. Scribes, artisans, healers, merchants, serfs, and slaves
B. Overcoming technological constraints
1. Peasant women helped farm in fields primarily responsible for family and
household
A. Women could inherit and pass along property rights
B. Women remained subordinate to men; could not fight in war
2. Peasants remained monogamous; polygamy existed in nobility
3. Women spent 30-40 hrs/week preparing food for family
A. Corn-based society
4. Aztec society could have supported as many as 20 million people
C. A tribute empire
1. Each city-state within Aztec empire was ruled by a speaker chosen by nobility
A. Eventually given title “emperor”
1. Increasingly considered a “living god”
2. Those who approached him could not look him in the eye, and
had to throw dirt on their head
B. Successors chosen from royal family line
2. Prime minister server under emperor
3. Governing council comprised of rulers of cities within empire
4. Military conquest key to Aztec empire
A. Conquered cities remained intact
1. Must fulfill obligations of tribute and labor
2. Local leaders left in power as tribute collectors
III. Twantinsuyu World of the Incas
A. The Inca Rise to Power
1. Twantinsuyu = empire of Incas
2. Emerges in Andes Mountains
A. Extends over 3000 miles
3. City of Cuzco emerges around 1350 CE
4. Pachacuti (1438-1471) = Inca ruler who extended empire from Cuzco to Lake
Texcoco through military campaigns and alliances
A. Successors would extend empire all along western coast of South
America; 9 million people
B. Conquest and Religion
1. Ancestor worship
A. Mummification of deceased; worshipped as religion intermediaries
2. Split inheritance = all political power and titles of the ruler went to his
successor but all of his palaces, wealth, land, and possessions remained in the
hands of his male descendents
A. Each Inca (Sappa Inca) responsible for own conquests as well
3. Inca sun considered highest religious deity
A. Emperor = sun’s representative on earth
1. Temple of the Sun = located in Cuzco; center of state religion,
home of Inca mummies
4. Huacas = holy shrines; mountains, stones, rivers, caves, tombs, temples, etc.
places of prayer and sacrifice
C. The Techniques of Inca Imperial Rule
1. Empire ruled by the Inca = emperor; almost a God
2. Divided into four major provinces under single governor
A. Province subdivided
1. Nobles filled bureaucratic role
B. Curacas = local rulers from conquered lands/people
1. Allowed to keep position in exchange for loyalty
3. Integrated empire through common language (Quenchua)
A. Elaborate system of roads, bridges, causeways
1. Built tambos = way stations, inns, storehouses along roads
A. Also served as relay points for messengers
2. Enlisted conquered peoples in Inca army
A. Mita = communities taking turns performing labor on
mining/building projects
4. Emphasis on warfare reinforces inequality between men and women
A. Women allowed to pass property onto daughters
5. Reliance of self-sufficiency prevents emergence of merchant class
D. Inca Cultural Achievements
1. Pottery, cloth, metal works (gold, silver, copper, bronze)
2. Did not use wheel or righting system
3. Quipu = knotted strings used to keep numerical records
A. Took censuses and financial needs
4. Developed extensive agricultural terraces on Steppes of Andes
E. Comparing Incas and Aztecs
1. Successful military and imperially
2. Centered around state-controlled agriculture
3. Trade and markets far more developed than Aztecs
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IV.
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V.