Download 1 NOUN PHRASE AS SUBJECT AND OBJECT Jauhar

1
Noun Phrase as Subject and Object
Jurnal ADHUM: Jurnal Penelitian dan Pengembangan Ilmu Administrasi dan Humaniora, Fakultas Ilmu
Administrasi dan Humaniora, Universitas Muhammadiyah Sukabumi. SK. PDII-LIPI no: 0005.105/JI.3.2/SK.
ISSN/2011.05.
Volume III, No.1, Januari 2013 ISSN Jurnal 2088-4486
NOUN PHRASE AS SUBJECT AND OBJECT
Jauhar Helmie, S.S., M. Hum
[email protected]
Lecture of English Education Department, Suryakancana University
ABSTRACT
This journal is entitled Noun Phrase as Subject and Object. The purpose of this
research is to find out the forming of the noun phrase (NP) and Indonesian translation.
The writer uses descriptive and comparative analysis method in this research. The
writer describes the data, compares and analyzes them. All of the data are taken from novel
“The Davinci Code”It can be concluded that the NP function as subject and object can have
the same modifiers. The translation of English NP into Indonesian generally started from the
head of the NP followed by the modifiers. But there is exception for the NP which modified
by quantifiers and article (a and an). The translation started from the modifiers followed by
the head of the NP.
Key words: nouns, verbs, phrase, noun phrase, verb phrase, subject, and object
Introduction
Language plays an important role not only in the communication process but also in
educational field. In our daily job, whether as a teacher, a translator, a writer, a journalist, or
anything else which relate to language, we will certainly face some linguistic problems.
Without having sufficient knowledge about linguistic, we will face some difficulties in doing
our job. That is why, we need to have a comprehensive notion about linguistic so we can
easily finish our job. In order to ease those problems, there is Linguistics, the study of
2
language, which studies languages as a system which consists of subsystems such as
morphology, phonology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. Linguistics is a science and it is
the only science which studies language. As it is said by Chaer:
“Secara populer orang sering menyatakan bahwa linguistik adalah ilmu tentang bahasa;
atau ilmu yang menjadikan bahasa sebagai objek kajiannya; atau lebih tepat lagi,
seperti dikatakan Martinet (1987:19), telaah ilmiah mengenai bahasa manusia.” (Chaer,
1994: 1-2)
The word ‘linguistic’ comes from Latin word lingua, means ‘language’. There are
many kinds of language in this world. One of them is English. Over 380 million people speak
English as their first language. English today is variously estimated as the second, third, or
fourth largest language by number of native speakers.
As it is said above, there are many kinds of language in this world. Each language
has different basic aspects such as the grammatical structure or the syntactic structure, and
the morphological structure. The differences among the basic aspects of languages can
cause many problems. It’s mainly happen in the translating process of a language or a
target language.
Theories
Syntax
As it is said that linguistics studies language as a system which consists of some
branches such as morphology, phonology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. Syntax is one
of the branch of Linguistics and the most important aspect of English grammar. The word
‘syntax’ originates from the Greek words συν (syn), meaning “co-“ or “together”, and τάξις
(taxis), meaning “sequence, order, or arrangement”.
According to dictionary, “Syntax is the arrangement of words into phrases and of
phrases into sentences.” In this definition is explained that Syntax studies the relationships
of words in sentences and how they put together into phrases or sentences.
In accordance with the definition above, another source stated, “Syntax is the study
of the rules, or ‘patterned relations’, that govern the way words combine to form phrases
and phrases combine to form sentences.”
In McManis, Stollenwerk and Zheng-Sheng opinion, “Syntax is the study of the
structure of sentences”. According to the definitions above, it can conclude, syntax is the
3
study of the rules that refers to the way words are put together in a group to create meaning
as phrases, clauses or as a sentence.
In Syntax, we learn about the syntactic structure containing the syntactic functions
and syntactic categories. The syntactic functions contain subject, predicate, object, and
complement. While the syntactic categories consist of noun phrases, verb phrases,
adjective phrases, and prepositional phrases. Besides that, there are also syntactic units; it
consists of word, phrase, clause, and sentence.
Words
We often hear the term ‘word’ and use it every time for all purposes. Word is the
smallest units of syntax that hierarchically is the constituent of the larger units of syntax,
which are phrase, clause and sentence. Word can stand on it own. Word, by dictionary
definition, “is a single unit of language which means something and can be spoken or
written.” 1 It is clear that word is a single unit that has meaning.
Moreover, Richard stated, “Word is the smallest of the linguistic units which can
occur on its own in speech and writing.” (Richard, et. al, 1985: 311)
There are two types of word:
1. Simple word is a word that consists of one morpheme, such as the words boy, girl,
man, hunt, act, and so on.
2. Complex word is a word that consists of two or more morphemes, such as gentleman,
boys, hunter, and so on.
Nouns
Nouns used to be defined as the ‘names’ of people, places, and things. According
to Matthews, “Noun is one of a class of words whose characteristic role is as an argument
of a verb and which is characteristically that of words denoting concrete entities.”
(Matthews, 1997: 248) Matthews gave the definition of noun by its function and its
characteristics.
While House and Harman stated, “Noun is a name of anything.” (House and
Harman, 1950: 20) This definition is so general. It refers to the whole great sorts things. It
can be concrete and abstract things.
4
Types of nouns, classified by form and meaning:
1. Nouns classified by form:
a. Simple nouns are nouns which have not been formed by combining two separate
words, e.g. girl, sister, table, book, etc.
b. Compound nouns are nouns which have been formed by combining two separate
words e.g. bookcase, outlet, greenhouse, earthquake, outcome, etc.
c. Phrasal nouns are groups of related words, written separately or with hyphens, e.g.
Alfred the Great, Duke of Windsor, bother-in-law, maid-of-honor, etc.
2. Nouns classified by meaning:
a. Proper nouns are nouns begin with capital letter in writing. It includes personal
names (Mr. Robby Williams); names of geographic units such as countries, cities,
rivers, etc. (Italy, Venice, Amazon); names of nationalities and religions (an
Indonesian, Islam); names of holidays (Thanksgiving Day); names of time units
(Monday, January); words used for personification, a thing or abstraction treated as
a person (Nature, Liberty).
b. Concrete Nouns are physical objects that can be perceived by the senses, we can
see, touch, smell the object, e.g. car, tree, fish, etc.
c. Abstract Nouns are concepts, ideas that exist in our minds only, e.g. justice, truth,
loyalty, etc.
d. Countable Nouns can take plural, e.g. one boy, two boys, etc.
e. Mass nouns are nouns that cannot take plural, e.g. iron, flour, water, etc.
f. Collective Nouns name a group of people or things gathered together into a unit,
e.g. committee, crowd, audience, majority, etc.
Verbs
Combined with its subject, the verb becomes the central element of a sentence or
clause. According to House and Harman, “A verb is that part of speech which expresses
action (run, walk, steal, kill, jump), being (am, become), or state of being (suffer, rejoice).”
(House and Harman, 1950: 93)
Verbs may be classified according to their meaning as transitive and intransitive;
and according to their form as regular and irregular.
The classification of verbs to their meaning:
5
1. In a transitive verb, the action is conceived as ‘going across’ or ‘passing over’ from a
subject or doer to an object or receiver; as, He lifted the hammer. Therefore, every
transitive verb requires a receiver for the action which it expresses.
2. An intransitive verb either shows no action at all (He is a good man; She appears
amiable); or represents action as limited to the subject or agent; as, She walks briskly;
The scheme works well.
The classification of verbs to their form:
1. A regular verb is one which forms its past indicative and past participle by adding the
suffix –ed, -d, or –t to the present infinitive (or the present indicative) form’ as, work,
worked, worked; hate, hated, hated; burn, burnt, burnt.
2. An irregular verb is one that does not form its past indicative and past participle by
adding –ed, -d, or –t to the stem-word; as, ride, rode, ridden; awake, awoke, awaked;
bleed, bled, bled; tell, told, told; set, set, set.
Phrases
Phrase is one of the syntactic units, which is one level above word. Phrase
generally defines as a group of related words that fulfill one of syntactic functions in a
sentence. It does not contain a subject and a verb. This definition is accordance with the
definition by dictionary, “Phrase is a group of words without a verb, especially one that
forms part of a sentence.”
Moreover another source stated, “A phrase is a group of words that functions as a
single unit in the syntax of a sentence.” It means that phrase is a group of words, it functions
as a single unit in a sentence or fulfill one of syntactic functions in a sentence. Therefore,
one of the elements of the phrase cannot be moved. If it is going to be moved, it has to
move all the constituents of the phrase.
While House and Harman stated, “A Phrase is a group of related words without a
subject or a predicate, acting as a single part of speech.” (House and Harman, 1950: 12)
They explained that a phrase has no subject or predicate and it acts as a single part of
speech.
All the definitions above states that, a phrase consists of more than one word. A
phrase has no subject and predicate, therefore a phrase shall be formed by free
morphemes not bound morpheme. It means there is no subject-predicate or predicateobject structure relationship between the constituents of the phrase.
6
Most phrases have a head or central word which defines the type of phrase. Some
phrases, however, can be headless. For example, the poor is a noun phrase composed of a
determiner (the) and an adjective (poor), but not noun.
Phrases can be classified by the type of the head:
1. Noun phrase (NP) with a noun as a head, e.g. beautiful flower, smart girl, luxurious
car, etc.
2. Verb phrase (VP) with a verb as a head, e.g. sleep soundly, trust me, run quickly, etc.
3. Adverbial phrase with adverb as a head, e.g. very easily.
4. Adjectival phrase with an adjective as a head, e.g. full of smile, very big.
5. Prepositional phrase (PP) with a preposition as a head, e.g. under the bridge, through
the window, etc.
Noun Phrases
Noun phrase is a phrase with noun as the head. It is one of the most important
syntactic categories. According to Chalker in her book Current English Grammar, “A noun
phrase is a word or words functioning in a sentence like a noun.” (Chalker, 1984: 46) In this
definition Chalker explained that noun phrase can be a single word or a group of words. So,
the proper noun, John, can count as a noun phrase by itself, so do the pronouns like I, she,
he, they can be a noun phrase as well.
Moreover another source stated, “A noun phrase is a phrase whose head is a noun
or a pronoun, optionally accompanied by a set of modifiers.” It is said that the head of a
noun phrase can be a noun or a pronoun and it is clustered by modifiers. The modifiers may
be determiners, such as articles (the, a), demonstratives (this, that), numerals (three, six),
possessives (my, your, their), and quantifiers (some, many, much), adjectives (huge, old),
participle (frozen), other nouns (broadcasting), and adverbs (only).
Quirk and Greenbaum in “A University Grammar of English” distinguish three main
components of the noun phrase:
1. The head, around which the other components cluster.
For examples:
1. The pretty girl
2. The committee’s report
3. The bright day
4. The man in the corner
5. The reasonable price
7
2. Premodification, which comprises all the items placed before the head-notably
adjectives and nouns.
For examples:
1. The pretty girl
2. Some pretty college girls
3. The bright day
4. The committee’s report
5. The broadcasting corporation
3. Postmodification, comprising all the items placed after the head-notably
prepositional phrases, non-finite clauses, and relative clauses.
For examples:
1. The girl in the corner
2. The girl standing in the corner
3. The girl who stood in the corner
4. The boy who was ill
5. The boy eating an apple
Prepositional Phrases
Prepositional phrase is a phrase whose head is preposition. It can be formed by
various word classes such as nouns, pronouns, ing-clauses, etc.
For examples:
1. over the rainbow
2. in the shop
3. for us
4. by studying hard
Method of Research
The method that used in this reseach is qualitative research. The focus
investigation of approach is language system, either microlinguistics or macrolinguistics, in
a certain period of time; language analysis based on the present. According to Soeparno
(2002: 117) the advantage of this approach is objective, and he also states, it is because
8
the motto is“describe the facts, all the facts, and nothing but the facts”. The result of
synchronic approach is linguistic descriptive. So, for instance, this research uses descriptive
approach.
According to the characteristics of qulitative research by Bogdan and Biklen (1992),
it is said that a researcher of qualitative research is the key instrument. It means that the
researcher plays an important role in decidinh data both to include and to exclude. As
outlined in the conceptual framework, researchers use descriptive analysis. Data is
purposefully collected to classify, to compare, and to analyze to get deep understanding of
the topic about.
There are four steps of data collecting, which are conducted during this research.
First, the writer collects sentences which contain phrases as subject and as object. The
second step, the writer italizes the data and gives information where those data are taken
from. The third step, the writer classifies data based on certain characteristics and features
as they were needed. Finally, the writer compares and analyzes data morphologically.
The Method and Study Technique
The technique of data collecting in this research are sentences and clauses which
consist of noun phrases as subject and object as data source to be collected and written.
The data will italize completely based on the data sources including pages and paragraphs
from novels and other data sources. The data found are finally classifed based on
descriptive and so are the whole data.
Thes study technique of data collecting is the writer searches and marks analyzed
words which consist noun phrases as subject and object and try to explain based on the title
that is syntactic and semantic study.
9
Data Source
To complete this research, the writer seeks data from novels which are related to
the research material. In addition, the writer also seeks other sources from internet at the
website:www.linguistics.com. the analysis of data novel The Da Vinci Code, and articles
from The Jakarta Post.
Technique of Collecting Data
In analyzing data it needs identifying, classifying, interpreting data, and finding conclusion
(Troot and Bloomer, 1998: 7-13). For this reason, researcher will take several steps.
a. Identification. The first step is identifying the source.
b. Classification. The second step is classifying the collected data.
c. Interpreting. This third step is finding the word-formation of new words in English
and the meaning change as the impact of new formation.
d. Describing. The fourth step is describing the ways of forming of new words and the
meaning change.
e. Conclusion. This last step is finding conclusion to answer the research question
demands.
This research deals with linguistics. It has several benefits for the language study
and people who are interested in studying English. In this thesis we can find the definition of
syntax, translation, and semantics. We also find the categories of meaning, such as
grammatical, ideomatical, conceptual meaning, contextual meaning, and referensial
meaning.
Theoretically, the result of this research will enrich the English language study and
practically it will be very valuable to thise who have interest in learning English in specific
10
way to get more comprehension in English sentences and clauses especially in recognizing
the noun phrase as subject and noun phrase as object.
So, those are main source data. Collecting will be reached by reading the sources
comprehensively. The researcher will find out the formation of new words.
Result
Below are some data that found by the writer.
1. Their agreement was too great for
Persamaan
coincidence. (Page 13; 4th paragraph)
berlebihan
kata-kata
untuk
mereka
dianggap
kebetulan
belaka. (Halaman 23; paragraf kedua)
Analysis:
Syntactically, the sentence above consists of one NP, their agreement. The head of
the NP is agreement which is an abstract noun, this NP is modified by possessive
determiner their. Because the modifier is placed before the head, it is called a
premodification.
Semantically, the noun agreement in the source language (SL) means ‘a promise or
a contract made with somebody’ or ‘the state of sharing the same opinion or feeling;
(Oxford, 2000; 27) while in the target language (TL) the noun agreement has lexical
meaning “persetujuan”. In this case the translator translates agreement into “persamaan
kata-kata” in order to make the reader easier to understand the translator’s point of view,
although basically “persamaan kata-kata” has equivalent meaning with “persetujuan”. The
possessive determiner their in the NP their agreement translated into “mereka”.
The translator translates the NP their agreement into “persamaan kata-kata
mereka” by using idiomatic translation. We can see from the data above that there is level
shift in the NP their agreement. Because two words their and agreement are translated into
four words “persamaan”, “kata”, “kata”, and “mereka”.
terlalu
2
2. The frightening image of the curator’s body
remained locked in his mind. (Page 15; 4th
Gambar jasad kurator yang menakutkan
paragraph)
tadi masih menancap di otaknya. (Halaman
26; paragraf kedua)
Analysis:
Syntactically the NP that functions as subject in the sentence above is the
frightening image of the curator’s body. This NP is more complex because it is formed by
some modifiers which are placed before and after the head. Image which is a countable
noun is the head of the NP. It is modified by definite article the and –ing participle
frightening in the front. Besides that, the head is also modified by of phrase, of the curator’s
body, which indicates possessiveness.
Semantically, the noun image in the SL means ’a picture of somebody/something
seen in a mirror, through a camera’; (Oxford, 2000; 675) while in the TL the noun image has
lexical meaning “gambaran”. Here, the translator translates image into “gambar”.
The adjective frightening in the NP above is formed by –ing participle. In the SL the
adjective frightening means “causing fear” while in the TL has lexical meaning
“menyebabkan takut”. By the translator, the adjective “frightening” is translated into “yang
menakutkan”. Next, the phrase of the curator’s body is translated into “jasad kurator”. The
noun body in the TL has lexical meaning “badan” or “mayat”. In this case, the translator
prefers to translate the noun body into “jasad” in order to make sounds more polite.
The translator translates the NP the frightening image of the curator’s body into
“gambar jasad kurator yang menakutkan” by using idiomatic translation to make the reader
easier to understand the text. We can see that there is level shift in the NP the frightening
image of the curator’s body. Because seven words the, frightening, image, of, the, curator’s,
and body are translated into five words “gambar”, “jasad”, “kurator”, “yang”, and
“menakutkan”.
3. The
driver
Aringarosa
who
from
collected
Leonardo
Bishop
da
Vinci
Pengemudi
Uskup
mobil
yang
Aringarosa
menjemput
dari
Leonardo
Bandara
International Airport pulled up in a small,
Internasional
unimpressive black Fiat sedan. (Page 160; 1st
mengendarai sebuah sedan Fiat kecil
paragraph)
berwarna
hitam
yang
da
tak
(Halaman 207; paragraf pertama)
Vinci
menarik.
11
Analysis:
Syntactically, in the sentence above the NP that functions as subject is the driver
who collected Bishop Aringarosa from Leonardo da Vinci International Airport. The head of
the NP is driver which is a concrete noun. This NP is modified by relative clause. The
relative clause is who collected Bishop Aringarosa from Leonardo da Vinci International
Airport. Before the noun driver, there is definite article the. The NP above is a
postmodification because the modifiers are placed after the head.
Semantically, the noun driver in the SL means “person who drives a vehicle”
(Oxford, 2000; 406) while in the TL the noun driver has lexical meaning “sopir”. The noun
driver is translated into “pengemudi mobil”. Here, the translator translates the noun driver by
using idiomatic translation.
The relative clause who collected Bishop Aringarosa from Leonardo da Vinci
International Airport is translated into “yang menjemput Uskup Aringarosa dari Bandara
Internasional Leonardo da Vinci”. The relative pronoun in the TL has lexical meaning “siapa”
but here the translator translates the relative pronoun who into “yang”. Next, the verb
collected which in the TL has lexical meaning “mengumpulkan” is translated into
“menjemput”. In this case, the translator tries to make the reader easier to understand the
translator’s point of view by using idiomatic translation, although basically “menjemput” has
equivalent meaning with “mengumpulkan”.
Based on the data above, we can see that there is no level shift in the NP the driver
who collected Bishop Aringarosa from Leonardo da Vinci International Airport. Because
twelve words the, driver, who, collected, Bishop, Aringarosa, from, Leonardo, da, Vinci,
International, and Airport are translated into twelve words “pengemudi”, “mobil”, “yang”,
“menjemput” “Uskup”, “Aringarosa”, “dari”, “Bandara”, “Internasional”, “Leonardo”, “da”, and
“Vinci”. In this case, the translator tries to make the reader easier to understand the text by
using idiomatic translation.
4. Sixteen separate tracks spread out before
them. (Page 165; 2nd paragraph)
Enam belas jalur terpisah berpencaran di
depan mereka. (Halaman 213; paragraf
kelima)
Analysis:
13
The sentence above consists of 1 (one) NP, which is sixteen separate tracks.
Syntactically, the head of the NP tracks, which is a concrete noun, is modified by determiner
and adjective. The determiner in this NP is cardinal number sixteen and the adjective is
separate. Because the modifiers of the NP are placed in front of the head tracks, it is called
a premodification.
Semantically, the noun track in the SL means ’a rough path or road’; (Oxford, 2000;
1432) while in the TL the noun track has lexical meaning “jalur”. The translator translates
tracks into “jalur”. The suffix -s in the word tracks which indicates that the noun is plural, is
not translated because there is a cardinal number sixteen precedes tracks. This cardinal
number shows the quantity of the noun track. So, it does not need to repeat the lexical
meaning and add the word “para” before its lexical meaning to show that the noun is plural
because there is a cardinal number “enam belas”. That is why the translator translates
tracks by its lexical meaning in singular form.
The word separate in the NP sixteen separate tracks is an adjective. The adjective
separate in the TL has lexical meaning “pisah” which is a verb. The translator does not
translate separate in verb form but in the same part of speech as in the SL. In order to make
“pisah” become an adjective, in Indonesian a prefix ter- is affixed before the word “pisah”.
So, the adjective separate is translated into “terpisah”.
Because the NP has a cardinal number as one of the modifiers, the NP is translated
not from the head first but from the cardinal number followed by the head and other
modifier. Based on the data above, the NP sixteen separate tracks is translated into “enam
belas jalur terpisah”. The writer uses idiomatic translation to make the reader easier to
understand the text. There is level shift in the NP sixteen separate tracks. Because three
words sixteenm, separate, and tracks are translated into four worsd “enam”, “belas”, “jalur”,
and “terpisah”.
5. The priest who greeted him at the
Pendeta yang menyambutnya di pintu
door looked sleepy. (Page 187; 4th
masuk tampak mengantuk. (Halaman
paragraph)
241; paragraph ketiga)
Analysis:
The NP of the sentence above is the priest who greeted him at the door. The head
of the NP is priest which is a concrete noun. Syntactically, this NP is modified by determiner
14
and relative clause. In this case the determiner is a definite article the and the relative
clause is who greeted him at the door. This NP is a postmodification because the modifiers
are placed after the head.
Semantically, the noun priest in the SL means ‘a person who is qualified to perform
religious duties and ceremonies in Roman Catholic, Anglican and Orthodox’; (Oxford, 2000;
1044) while in the TL the noun priest has lexical meaning “pendeta”. By the translator the
noun priest is translated by its lexical meaning into “pendeta”.
The relative clause who greeted him at the door is translated into “yang
menyambutnya di pintu masuk”. The relative pronoun who in the TL has lexical meaning
“siapa”. In this case, the translator translates who into “yang” in order to make the reader
easier to understand the translator’s point of view.
Next, the verb greeted in the SL means ‘welcome’ (Oxford, 2000; ) while in TL has
lexical meaning “memberi salam”. In this case, the translator translates greeted into
“menyambut” in order to make the reader easier to understand the translator’s point of view,
although basically “menyambut” has equivalent meaning with “memberi salam”.
The personal pronoun him in TL has lexical meaning “dia”, by the translator him is
translated into “nya” and it is attached to the verb “menyambut”. The translator translates
the noun door into “pintu masuk” while in the TL door has lexical meaning “pintu”. In this
case, the translator uses idiomatic translation in order to make the reader easier to
understand the translator’s point of view, although basically “pintu masuk” has equivalent
meaning with “pintu”.
We can see from the data above that there is level shift in the NP the priest who
greeted him at the door. Because eight words the, priest, who, greeted, him, at, the, and
door are translated into six words “pendeta”, “yang”, “menyambutnya”, “di”, “pintu”, and
“masuk”.
CONCLUSIONS
The conclusions are as follows:
1. The noun phrase (NP) that functions as subject and object can have the same
modifiers. They can be modified by determiners, adjectives, participles, prepositional
phrases, and relative clauses.
2. Generally, the translation process of NP into the target language (TL) is started with the
head. But there is an exception for the NP which is preceded by determiners such as
15
articles, pre-articles, demonstratives, and numbers. The NP which is preceded by
determiners is translated from the determiners followed by the head of the NP and other
modifiers.
BIBLIOGRAPHIES
Azar, Betty Schrampfer. 1993. Understanding and Using English Grammars, Second
Edition. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Chaer, Abdul. 1994. Linguistik Umum. Jakarta: PT. Rhineka Cipta.
Chalker, Sylvia. 1984. Current English Grammar. London: Macmillan Publishers Ltd.
Gaskell, Robin F. 2006. www.glosa.org.
House, Homer C. and Harman, Susan Emolyn. 1950. Descriptive English Grammar, Second
Edition. Englewood Cliffs, New. Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Hurford, James R. and Heasley, Brendan. 1983. Semantics: a coursebook. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Larson, Mildred L. 1984. Meaning-Based Translation: A Guide to Cross-Language
Equivalence. The United States of America, University Press of America, Inc.
McManis, C., Stollenwerk, D., and Zheng-Sheng, Z. 1987. Language Files. Ohio: Advocate
Publishing Group.
Newmark, Peter. 1988. A Text Book of Translation. Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd.
Quirk, Randolph and Greenbaum, Sidney. 1973. A University Grammar of English. London:
Longman Group Limited.
Roberts, Paul. English Syntax, Alternate Edition. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.
Widyamartaya, A. 1989. Seni Menerjemahkan. Yogyakarka: Kanisius.
www.Wikipedia.org, 2007.
16