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☰ Search Explore Log in Create new account Upload × D’YOUVILLE COLLEGE PMD 604 - ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, PATHOLOGY II Lecture 9: Endocrine Pathology G & H chapters 75 - 78 & Robbins chapter 20 1. Origin of Endocrine Disorders: • hypofunction: deficient hormonal responses may result from: - hyposecretion from agenesis or faulty gland development or a genetically based disorder of hormone synthesis - malignant (highly anaplastic) tumors of glands - glandular damage from infection, injury (infarction), autoimmune attack, atrophy from lack of tropic hormone stimulation, excessive surgical removal of a neoplasm • insensitivity of target tissue (hormone resistance): - due to genetically based failure of target tissue metabolism - autoimmune attack on hormone receptors • hyperfunction: excessive hormonal effects may result from: - hypersecretion from a tumor (benign or minimally anaplastic) - breakdown of negative feedback control - ectopic secretion (by tumors in nonendocrine tissues, e.g., lung neoplasm) - deficiency of normal clearance of hormone from bloodstream, e.g., sequel to liver disease 2. Disorders of Anterior Pituitary: • hypopituitarism: anterior lobe deficiency often involves deficiencies in the various hormone-producing cells (panhypopituitarism) - deficiency of a particular tropic hormone results in target organ deficiency (hypothyroidism, hypoadrenalism or deficits in sexual function) - deficiency of prolactin-producing cells may cause failure of post partum milk production - deficiency of growth hormone in preadolescents produces dwarfism - causes include: - non-functioning adenoma, damage from ischemia, radiation or surgery, or inflammatory conditions (e.g. tuberculosis); hypothalamic origin would be indicated if there is an accompanying posterior lobe dysfunction • hyperpituitarism: anterior lobe hyperfunction involves adenomas of the various hormone-producing cells, but usually only one cell type in any given tumor (figs. 20 - 1, 20 - 4 & ppt. 1); tumors may be functional (hormone-producing) or silent (no hyperfunction) PMD 604, lec 10 - p. 2 - gigantism & acromegaly result from hypersecretion of growth hormone from a tumor; gigantism is produced by elevated GH acting on long bone growth (epiphysial discs); after adolescence (discs ossified), acromegaly (fig. 75 8 & ppt. 2) results (coarse bony features due to excessive thickening); also possible kyphosis • pituitary tumors: may cause visual impairment due to pressure on optic chiasma or headache due to increased intracranial pressure PMD 604, lec 10 2. - p. 3 Disorders of Posterior Pituitary: clinically important disorders involve ADH hyposecretion or hypersecretion • hyposecretion of ADH: caused by anaplastic tumor, infection, or trauma of hypothalamohypophysial tract - results in excessive urine output (diabetes insipidus); danger of dehydration unless sufficient polydipsia (increased water consumption) can compensate for the water loss • hypersecretion of ADH: produced from non-endocrine tumors, or may result from hypothalamic disturbance, neurohypophysial infarction or other brain traumas - resulting syndrome (SIADH - syndrome of inappropriate ADH release) results from excessive water retention by kidneys; produces excessive extracellular fluid, with possible hyponatremia & osmotic swelling of brain tissues 3. Disorders of Thyroid: • Grave's disease: hypersecretion of thyroid hormones resulting from autoantibodies that stimulate TSH receptors (TSI = thyroid stimulating immunoglobulins); low TSH levels result from excessive inhibition by elevated level of T3 &/or T4 • toxic goiter: hyperplasia of thyroid due to adenoma that secretes elevated levels of thyroid hormones independent of usual TSH control mechanism; depressed TSH levels cause recession of normal thyroid tissue while tumor thrives • signs of hyperthyroidism: exophthalmos (fig. 76 - 8 & ppt. 3) results from edema & hyperplasia of retro-orbital tissues; other effects result from elevated metabolic rate (muscular wasting, extreme nervousness, hyperventilation, tachycardia, insomnia, heat intolerance & excessive sweating) • Hashimoto's thyroiditis: chronic granulomatous inflammation with hyposecretion due to autoimmune condition (fig. 20 - 7 & ppt. 4); lack of feedback control of TSH leads to goiter (with reduced functional follicles) • endemic goiter: caused by dietary iodine deficiency with resultant failure of thyroid hormone synthesis - lack of inhibition of the endocrine axis results in elevated TSH & hyperstimulation of thyroid • idiopathic (non-toxic) goiter: impairment of iodine metabolism with resultant failure of thyroid hormone synthesis - lack of inhibition of the endocrine axis results in elevated TSH & hyperstimulation of thyroid • cretinism (ppt. 5) afflicts newborns (impaired growth & development) PMD 604, lec 10 - p. 4 • myxedema (fig. 76 - 9 & ppt. 6) afflicts adults (caused by edematous swelling associated with glycoprotein deposit in dermis) • signs of hyperthyroidism: fatigue, muscular sluggishness, mental sluggishness, cardiac disturbances (HR & CO depressed), somnolence, weight gain & atherosclerosis PMD 604, lec 10 4. - p. 5 Disorders of Adrenal Cortex: • cortical hypersecretion: elevated levels of normal corticosteroids - Cushing's syndrome: elevated glucocorticoid levels may result from chronic ACTH or glucocorticoid therapy (iatrogenic Cushing's), an ACTH tumor of pituitary, an adrenal cortical tumor, or ectopic secretion of ACTH by tumor of nonendocrine source, e.g. lung neoplasia (fig. 20 - 35 & ppt. 7) - results in hyperglycemia (inhibited glucose utilization & stimulation of gluconeogenesis in tissues) that may provoke 'adrenal diabetes' (not very responsive to insulin) - Cushing's patients suffer from hypertension (mineralocorticoid action of excessive cortisol), obesity (due to elevated lipids) & puffiness from lipid deposits in face (fig. 77 - 10 & ppt. 8), eyelids & upper torso ('moon face' &/or 'buffalo torso'), muscle weakness & bone loss (protein catabolism due to excess cortisol), masculinizing syndrome (hirsutism & acne) & menstrual disorders in women (due to excess adrenal androgens) and susceptibility to infections (antiinflammatory action of cortisol) - hyperaldosteronism: tumor of aldosterone producing cells; main effect is hypertension due to sodium and water retention - adrenogenital syndromes: arise from excessive adrenal androgens resulting from 'virilizing' carcinoma or congenital adrenal hyperplasia; also may arise with Cushing's - masculinization of traits in females (hirsutism, menstrual disorders, ambiguous genitalia); precocious sexual maturation in males (fig. 77 - 11 & ppt. 9) • cortical hyposecretion (rare): main condition is Addison's disease (glucocorticoid & mineralocorticoid deficiency) - caused by autoimmune destruction of cortex or sequel to TB, AIDS fungal infection or metastatic cancer - characterized by gastrointestinal disorders (nausea, vomiting, anorexia), sodium & water losses (with risk of shock - severe hypotension), also hyperkalemia (polarized membrane disturbances) & acidosis; pigmentation disorder is related to excessive levels of ACTH that stimulate melanocytes (fig. 77 - 9 & ppt. 10) - failure of stress response (low glucocorticoid levels) may exacerbate above conditions 5. Disorder of Endocrine Pancreas: • diabetes mellitus (DM): two main forms -- IDDM (insulin dependent DM, juvenile onset or type I) & NIDDM (non-insulin dependent DM, maturity onset or type II) (fig. 17 - 20) - IDDM: arises as autoimmune condition probably provoked by environmental assaults &/or genetic predisposition; lymphocytes & macrophages attack 'self antigens' of cells resulting in their destruction; insulin deficiency produces increased gluconeogenesis & glycogenolysis leading to hyperglycemia, PMD 604, lec 10 - p. 6 glucosuria, polyuria & polydipsia; ketogenesis (from lipolysis & oxidation of FFA for energy) may lead to ketoacidosis (fig. 17 - 19) - NIDDM (fig. 17 - 21): most often a genetically based defect, exacerbated by obesity (products of adipocytes impede insulin receptor function), causing insulin resistance in target tissues accompanied by inadequate insulin response & ensuing progressive deterioration of cells - may involve protein (amylin) deposition - chronic effects of DM: elevated glucose leads to non-enzymatic glycosylation of protein (glycated protein, e.g., hemoglobin A1C) - resultant complications include microangiopathy, which may interfere with blood supply to various tissues (results in impaired healing, kidney damage, damage to lens & retina of the eye, hyperlipidemia and consequent atherosclerosis and neuropathies) - diagnosis: usual procedure is a glucose tolerance test (fig. 17 - 22) - treatment: insulin injections and scrupulous dietary management of sugar and caloric intake (IDDM); regular exercise, weight loss & sulfonyl urea (NIDDM) PMD 604, lec 10 5. - p. 7 Disorders of Parathyroid: • hyperparathyroidism: occurs more frequently in females (3:1) - produces loss of bone mineral matrix, which leads to hypercalcemia; hypercalcemia may cause kidney stones, muscular cramps, depressed nerve function, pain & metastatic calcification - results from benign or malignant tumor (usually confined to one gland) or from hyperplasia (usually affects all four glands); hyperplasia characterizes secondary hyperparathyroidism (sequel to renal failure & loss of calcium in urine, or sequel to GI malabsorption or to vitamin D deficiency) • hypoparathyroidism: rarely occurring diminished output of PTH - formerly a consequence of inadvertent surgical removal of parathyroids (during thyroidectomy); autoimmune attack of parathyroid tissue is now the more important cause - results in hypocalcemia (due to excessive renal loss of calcium), which, in turn, causes muscular tetany (may lead to respiratory failure), weakness & altered mental processes, including seizures Download 1. 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