Download Notes – Simple and Non-simple Sentences

Simple and non-simple sentence in English: An Introduction (Basic simple sentence
patterns)
The basic simple sentence patterns are made up of parts that are arranged in a definite order and
are realized or represented by particular kinds of words or word groups (nouns, noun phrases,
adjective, adjective phrases, etc.)
English Sentences
Simple
Basic
Non-simple
Non-basic
Compound Complex Compound-complex
Basic Simple sentences
1. Subject + predicator, eg: My sister smiled.
S
S (NP)
Det
My
N
P
V
sister smiled
2. Subject + predicator + Direct Object, eg: My father drove the car.
S
S
Det
My
P
N
father
O
V
Det
N
drove
the
car
3. Subject + Predicator + Indirect Object + Direct Object, eg: I gave my friend some money.
S
S
P
Pronoun
V
I
gave
Oi
Det
Od
N
Det
N
my friend some
money
4. Subject + Predicator + Subject Complement [Nominal], eg: My father is a lawyer.
S
S
P
S Compl.[Nom]
Det
N
V
Det
N
My
father
is
a
lawyer
5. Subject + Predicator + Subject Complement [Adjectival], eg: Her roommate is noisy.
S
S
Det
Her
P
S Compl.[Adj]
N
V
Adj
room mate
is
noisy
6. Subject + Predicator + Adverbial, eg: Daisy is in the library.
S
N
P
A
N
V
PP
P
Diasy
is
NP
in
Det
N
the
library
7. Subject + Predicator + Direct Object + Object Complement [Nominal], eg:
We consider him a nuisance.
S
N
P
DO
O.Compl.[Nom]
N
V
P
Det
We
consider
him
a
N
nuisance
8. Subject + Predicator + Object Complement [Adjectival], eg: I find your advice useful.
S
S
P
DO
N
V
I
find your
Det
O. Compl[Adj]
N
Adj
advice
useful
9. Subject + Predicator + Direct Object + Adverbial, eg: I dropped the key in the locker.
S
S
P
N
V
DO
Det
A
N
PP
P
I
dropped the
key
in
NP
the
locker
NON-BASIC SIMPLE SENTENCES
Non-basic simple sentences are formed by altering the basic ones in various ways. The formation
of non-basic from basic simple sentences involves one or more of the following ways, which we
will refer to as transformations:




Re-ordering
Movement
Deletion
Insertion
Examples of Non-basic Simple Sentences
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Passive sentences
Negative sentences
Questions
Commands
Exclamations
The movement of the predicator from its position to one before the subject can be used to change
a basic simple sentence (statement) to a non-basic simple sentence (question).
Margaret is your friend.
Is Margaret your friend?
The insertion of another element can also alter a basic simple sentence and make it a non-basic
one.
My keys are on the table.
My keys are not on the table.
This is called Negation.
We shall be looking at three major non-basic simple sentence types, namely
 Passivisation
 Negation
 Interrogation
Passivisation
Passivisation can be formed by making some changes to the corresponding active sentence. Such
changes involve a rearrangement of the parts and the insertion of new items. It is essential that a
sentence has at least an object. This means that the verb is transitive
Active:
Passive:
My sister took the phone.
The phone was taken by my sister
The transformations that take place in the process of forming a passive sentence from an active
sentence are as follow:
(a) The active object becomes the passive subject (the phone (active object) becomes the
subject
(b) The active subject becomes in the passive an optional agentive adjunct in the form of a
prepositional phrase with by (by my sister)
(c) The verb or verb phrase in the active predicator becomes a passive verb phrase, one
containing an appropriate form of the auxiliary BE followed by the –en form of the verb.
(was taken)
ACTIVE SUBJECT
My sister
PASSIIVE SUBJECT
The phone
ACTIVE PREDICATOR
(active verb/verb phrase)
took
PASSIVE PREDICATOR
Passive verb phrase
was taken
ACTIVE OBJECT
the phone
(AGENTIVE
ADJUNCT)
by my sister
Passive sentences can be formed from active sentences with considerably expanded verbal parts,
eg:
My sister has taken the phone
My sister will take the phone
My sister will be taking the phone
My sister has taken the phone
The phone has been taken by my sister.
The phone will have been taken by my sister.
The phone will be being taken by my sister.
The phone has been being taken by my sister.
Note: that there are certain transitive verbs which do not express any action, so even when such
verbs occur in an active sentence, there are no corresponding passive forms.
He resembles someone I know.
*Someone I know is resembled by him.
The meat weighs two kilogrammes.
*Two kilogrammes is weighed by the meat.
The car costs him a fortune.
*He was cost a fortune by the car.
*A fortune was cost hum by the car.
Uses of Passive Sentences
(a) Passive sentences are preferred when the speaker does not know or cannot easily specify
the active subject (agent), eg,
My purse was stolen during the rush.
Radio was invented last century.
(b) When it is felt unnecessary to specify the agent of the action, especially when it is
expected to be clear from the context .
The car was stolen last night.
She was born in 1995.
(c) The passive is preferred when it is necessary to bring the person who undergoes the
action into special prominence in the initial position, which is normally occupied by the
active subject.
My father was criticized for his leadership style.
The boys were roped into the crime.
Negative Sentences
Afixal and Non-affixal Sentence Negation
Non-affixal Negation
Negation with “not” or “n’t” (the reduced form)
This is the simplest form of negation. It is done by inserting the negator/negative particle “not” or its
reduced form “n’t” between the operator (the first or the only auxiliary in the verbal group) and the lexical
verb in the verbal group/phrase when there is only one. However, if there are more than one auxiliary then
the negator is placed after the first auxiliary.
I will see you at noon → I will not see you at noon
You should have done it → You should not have done it
They could have been attending to the victims
→ They could not have been attending to the victims
The auxiliary is so important in the positive/affirmative/assertive form that if it is not available, one has to
be inserted, eg,
We visit our grandmother everyday → We do not visit our grandmother everyday
This means if a positive sentence is to be negated by the insertion of “not” and it does not contain an
auxiliary, one is required. The auxiliary “do” inserted here is not like any other auxiliary (eg, lexical “do”
and pro-form “do”. It is merely a utility auxiliary. It is not normally found occurring with another
auxiliary. The auxiliary also carries the tense in the verbal group and is marked for concord with the
subject.
Kunle did his work well →Kunle did not do his work well
Negative Sentences with “n’t”
The negator in a negative sentence can take the reduced form “n’t” especially in informal conversation or
writing.
will not → won’t; have not → haven’t; are not → aren’t; should not → shouldn’t; could not → couldn’t,
etc.
Note
(i) The modal “must” when it is equal to logical reference is normally replaced by “cannot/can’t”
They must be in Lagos by now → They cannot be in Lagos by now
Still on Sentential Negation
Sentential Negation can apply to either the main clause or to the complement clause, eg
I said he took the book
I did not say [that he took the book] – I said nothing (main clause negation)
I said he [that he did not take the book] – I said something – what? - that he did not take the
book (complement clause negation)
Sentences with semi-negative adverbs
Semi-negative adverbs are also used for negation, eg, hardly, never, scarcely, seldom, rarely
No Negation
I have had breakfast
I have not had breakfast
I have had no breakfast
Parallel positive and negative sentences
Indefinites – any (anything, anywhere, anybody) some (something, somewhere, somebody) → (nothing,
nowhere, nobody)
Inherent Negative forms
Words such as doubt, forbid, deny can have their positive forms such as believe, allow, accept
I believe your testimony → I doubt your testimony
Cigarette smoking allowed here → Cigarette smoking is forbidden here.
He accepted being a culprit → He denied being a culprit
Affixal Negation
Negative affixes can be used to negate an English sentence.
inimirildisunless-
inaudible, inexperienced
impossible
irrelevant, irregular
illegal, illogical
disbelieve, disappear
unimportant, unacceptable
useless, careless
Interrogation/Questions
Scholars on interrogative syntax have identified some types of interrogatives in English.
The broad types identified from the typologies presented by these various scholars are the
following:
(a) Yes-no Questions, otherwise known as Polar Questions, Closed Questions Or
Nexus Questions, Confirmation-denial Questions
(b) Wh-Questions, otherwise known as Information-seeking Questions
(c) Alternative Questions
(d) Tag Questions
(e) Rhetorical Questions
Yes-no Questions can be described as questions that allow for an affirmative (yes) or negative
(no) reply. According to Aremo (1997:342), in a typical Yes-no question, the operator (the only
auxiliary or the first of the two or more auxiliaries in a verb phrase) is moved before the subject
and is pronounced with a rising intonation. Eggins (1993: 173) puts this in another way – “the
structure of the polar question involves the positioning of the finite before the subject”, for
example,
Are they coming tonight?
In 4 above, the operator or the finite verb are, is fronted, while the subject they is placed next to
it. The rising intonation is indicated by the question mark. In cases where the related declarative
contains a fused finite/predicator (ie, simple past and simple present forms of verb) there is need
to introduce a finite element to be placed before the subject. This finite element is typically the
“do” auxiliary, eg:
Declarative: Tunde copied the work from his book
Interrogative: Did Tunde copy the work from his book?
The second sentence is a non-basic sentence formed from the first one, a basic sentence by
inserting the finite element “do”. In a Yes-no question clear constraints are on the interpretation
of the utterance which follows. Hearers therefore will try and interpret whatever follows the
question as meaning either “yes” or “no”. According to Stubbs, 1983: 105), this is not to say that
only the forms “yes “ and “no” can occur; but that whatever does occur is already pre-classified
as meaning either “yes” or “no”. For instance, an answer such as “I don’t think so” can be
interpreted as negative.
Wh- Ouestions are questions formed with one of the closed class of interrogative pronouns
(who, what, where, when, why and how). According to Quirk, et al (1985: 806), wh- questions
typically expect a reply from an open range of replies. It may appear that wh- questions are
syntactically constrained in the sense that a where- interrogative is normally followed by a place
adverbial and a when- interrogative, by a time adverbial,
Q: Where is my book? A: On the table. / *At five o’clock.
Q: When is daddy coming? A: At five o’clock. / *On the table.
It is easy to identify counter examples where there are no such constraints, eg:
Q: Where is John? A: He’s not well today.
The answer in the question above can still be interpreted as “At home”, but using the latter
“might be conversationally inappropriate on its own, since some reasons might be required”
(Stubbs, 1983: 108).
Alternative Questions are a special kind of Yes-no question in the sense that the structure is like
that of a yes-no question (the subject follows the operator or the finite verb). They differ only in
the fact that they possess two or more alternative answers. In alternative questions, there is a
presupposition of the truth value of only one of the propositions, eg:
Will you have tea or coffee?
Tag Questions are a type of question in which the interrogative structure is left to the end of the
sentence where the operator is “tagged on” to the pronoun subject and the question expects a
“yes” or “no” answer. The central purpose of a tag question is to seek confirmation, eg:
He came late, didn’t he?
Kersti and Burridge (2001) identified other functions of tag questions:
(i)
Regulating conversational interaction and politeness, for instance, a parent may
say to a child who misbehaves in the presence of visitors
You don’t do that, do you?
(ii)
Indicating interest in participation in an ongoing discourse, eg:
I guess I can come in now, can’t?
(iii)
Seeking empathy form listener (s), eg:
I am not as bad as he portrayed me, am I?
For further discussion on the functions of tag questions, see Kersti and Burridge (2001:
122 ff).
Rhetorical Question is common in formal speeches of persuasion made by public speakers,
politicians and poets. It resembles questions in structure, but is really used for making emphatic
statements. Quirk et al (1985: 1478) assert that “in communicative effect, it [rhetorical question]
is similar to tag question since it seeks confirmation of what the speaker has explicitly assumed
(by preceding declarative) to be agreed as truth.”
In a rhetorical question, the speaker does not expect an answer, for example,
Is there anybody here ready to die?
Sometimes, rhetorical questions reflect how the speaker thinks, ie, his internal reflection
and at the same time, it directs the hearer’s mind to the points being made, eg:
How shall I put it now?
But, where was I?
Some rhetorical questions have the functions of a directive (with abusive component), eg:
Why don’t you go and jump in to the lagoon?