Download Cold War Crises 1945-53

COLD WAR CRISES: 1945-53
The Cold War developed in two distinct stages. The first involved the souring of relations
between the Superpowers, and was essentially caused by the USSR's consolidation of power in the
Balkans, and Harry Truman's misinterpretation of Soviet motivations in this respect. The second
stage involved an irrevocable breakdown in relations, and was caused by American fears that the
USSR was interfering in the United States' sphere of influence.
The Soviet takeover of Romania and Bulgaria
As with the development of the Cold War, the Soviet takeover of Eastern Europe took place in
two distinct stages.
In the first stage, which occurred in 1945, Stalin consolidated power in Romania and Bulgaria two nations which had been allies of Germany during the Second World War. Stalin's claim on
these nations was given legitimacy - in his eyes, at least – by an agreement he had reached with
Churchill in October 1944 (under which Russia was to control the post-war fate of Bulgaria and
Romania, and Britain that of Greece).
The methods Stalin used to gain control of the two Balkan states were similar. Under an
agreement reached at Yalta, the newly-formed governments of the former Axis nations were to
purge their ranks of Nazi sympathisers. Stalin insisted that local Communists be given control of
the army and police, then used these institutions to harass, expel or imprison political opponents.
Given that many of the Communists' enemies had collaborated with the Germans, it was easy to
brand all political rivals as Nazi stooges.
In Romania, the Communists came to power soon after the Yalta Conference, in the Spring of
1945. When King Michael refused to dismiss General Radescu as Prime Minister, the USSR
intervened and forced him to do so. Radescu's replacement was the Communist Party leader,
Grozea.
In Bulgaria, the process was consummated with an election - in November 1945. The vote was
marred by intimidation against non-communist politicians, who ultimately called on their
supporters to abstain. The Communist-dominated Fatherland Front came to power with a strong
majority.
By the end of 1945, both Romania and Bulgaria were firmly under Soviet control. Stalin's
actions, however understandable, served only to fuel American distrust. But they did not cause the
Cold War, since Stalin was only intervening in regions already under his influence. Superpower
relations, while souring rapidly, had not yet reached crisis point.
The Iranian Crisis
The first real crisis between the Superpowers was in January 1946, over the Middle Eastern
nation of Iran.
The crisis had its origins during the Second World War, when the Allies decided to occupy Iran
in order to safeguard its supplies of oil and secure an important supply route to the USSR. In
1941, the British occupied the southern half of the country, while the Russians occupied the
northern half. After deposing the nation's pro-Nazi leader, Reza Shah, and installing his son as
monarch, both nations signed a treaty promising to leave Iran six months after the end of the war
(ie. March 2, 1946).
Russia had long had an interest in Iran, partly because it sought oil concessions in the northern
provinces of that nation, and partly because Iran it was so close to Russia's own oil fields (in Baku,
100 miles away). Unfortunately, Russian interest in the region brought it into conflict with Britain
and the United States, which had a virtual monopoly on oil concessions in the Middle East.
In November 1945, the newly-formed Democratic Party seized power in the northern province
of Azerbaijan, backed by the USSR. It promised to redistribute land to poor farmers, and
demanded political autonomy for the province. The Iranian government objected, but sought a
compromise which would be acceptable to Britain, America and the USSR. The Iranian premier
visited Moscow in February 1946 and suggested that his government might sign a joint oil
exploration agreement with Russia (and might grant some autonomy to Azerbaijan) if the USSR
agreed to withdraw its troops.
The March 2 deadline passed, and the British withdrew their troops as required under the 1942
treaty. But the Russians did not; instead, they stepped up troop movements. They were still
waiting for the Iranians to make a firm offer on the issue of oil exploration, and believed that
delaying their withdrawal would induce a favourable response.
The Americans, however, interpreted this action in an entirely different light. They saw it as part
of a Russian plan to seize control of Iran, and reacted by taking the matter to the UN Security
Council. The Soviets staged the first of many walk-outs, but the crisis was soon resolved. The
Iranian government reached agreement with the USSR, and the latter withdrew its troops.
The main legacy of the crisis was that it convinced the United States that the Soviet Union was
intent on expanding its power into regions under the influence of Britain and the United States.
Because of its dependence on imported oil, the US became especially sensitive to any Soviet
interference in Middle Eastern affairs. The irony, of course, was that the USSR was actually
seeking nothing other than what the United States already possessed – oil concessions in a region
of traditional interest.
The division of Germany
As relations between the Superpowers soured, negotiations over the future of Germany ground
to a halt. Reparations remained a divisive issue. At Potsdam, these were set at $20 billion, half
payable to the USSR. The Soviet Union was to extract its share from its own sector of Germany; it
(and Poland) would also receive 25 percent of "unnecessary" capital equipment from the western
zone, 40 percent of which would be in exchange for German food and raw materials.
In May 1946, the United States terminated deliveries of machinery from the western zone of
Germany. America saw reparations as hampering economic recovery and fueling support for
communism. The Soviet Union responded by rejecting America's attempts to reunify Germany.
Instead, they established a communist regime in the sector under their control. By the end of 1946,
the division of Germany was becoming permanent.
The Turkish Crisis
The Turkish Crisis of August 1946 reinforced American fears about Soviet expansionism, and
led to an irrevocable breakdown of Superpower relations.
Russia had long sought unrestricted access to the Mediterranean for its Black Sea fleet. In 1936,
it had signed the Montreux Convention, which gave Turkey effective control over the right of
passage of naval ships through the Dardanelles. By 1944, Stalin was determined to press for a
revision of the treaty. In October of that year, he discussed the matter with Churchill, and was led
to believe that the British would support him in his claim. Roosevelt made similar statements at
Yalta, as did Truman at Potsdam. The Russians were told that they had until August 1946 to
register their request.
Apparently, the Soviets accorded the treaty a low priority, because they waited another 13
months before formally requesting its revision. Although this request was fully in accord with the
decision reached at Potsdam, it was worded in such a way as to almost guarantee a hostile
response from the United States. What frightened the Americans most was Stalin's desire for naval
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facilities in the Dardanelles. Truman and his advisers saw this as evidence that the Soviet Union
was planning to seize control of Turkey, Greece and the entire Middle East. Some even believed
that Russia's territorial ambitions stretched as far as India and China. At a meeting with key
advisers, Truman declared that "we might as well find out whether the Russians are bent on world
conquest now, as in five or ten years." As such, he sent a strongly worded message to Stalin,
rejecting out of hand any revision of the treaty. He also dispatched a powerful naval task force to
the region, to ensure that Stalin understood America's resolve.
Of course, the Russians did not invade Turkey. Invasion had never been their intention. Their
real aim seems to have been to register their claim before the deadline passed. Had they done this
a year earlier, their request might have been granted. Had they done it eighteen months earlier, it
might have been granted willingly.
The Turkish Crisis had the effect of destroying the last vestiges of the Yalta Axioms within the
American government. From August 1946 onwards, all Russian actions were seen as aggressive
and expansionist. In line with the Riga view of Soviet foreign policy, Americans began to espouse
the so-called "Domino Theory", which asserted that a communist victory in one country would
facilitate the spread of communism to others.
However, the American public still held out for an accommodation with the USSR. It would
take the Greek Crisis to bring public opinion into line with political thinking.
The Greek Civil War and the Truman Doctrine
When the British Army entered Greece in 1944, it set up a right-wing government which would
serve its economic and military interests. The leftist National Liberation Front (EAM), which had
led the fight against the Germans and which controlled most of the countryside, demanded a share
of power, but was rebuffed. When the Greek police opened fire on EAM demonstrators in Athens,
a civil war broke out.
To maximise his chances of crushing the EAM, Churchill made a deal with Stalin. He
recognised Russia's control over Bulgaria and Romania, and in exchange Stalin recognised
Britain's control over Greece. As agreed, Stalin denied weapons to the EAM and instructed the
Greek Communist Party not to participate in the uprising. A truce was reached in January 1945,
which lasted until March of the following year. At that time, the rightists believed they were
powerful enough to wipe out the left, and unleashed a campaign of terror. The EAM forces took to
the hills and civil war broke out again.
This time, however, the civil conflict was seen in the context of the emerging Cold War.
President Truman and his advisers believed that Stalin was behind the rebellion, using it to expand
Russian influence in the region. They were determined to retain Greece as part of the Western
sphere of influence. Hence, when Britain declared that it could no longer afford to prop up the
Greek government, Truman announced that America would fill the breach. The Truman Doctrine,
announced in March 1947, committed the United States to limiting Soviet influence to those areas
already under Russian control – a policy known as "containment". Greece was the test case. The
US assumed control of the Greek army, and led it to victory in a bitter two year conflict. EAM was
crushed, and the leftists kept from power for almost three decades. Truman also approved fullscale production and testing of nuclear weapons.
The Soviet takeover of Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia
The second phase of Soviet consolidation of power in Eastern Europe occurred in 1947-48.
During this time, communist parties seized control in Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. By
the middle of 1947, Stalin had become convinced that accommodation with the United States was
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impossible. He therefore believed that any weakness within the Soviet sphere would be exploited
by the US. As such, he moved to plug the three remaining holes.
In late 1945, Hungary had elected a government with a non-communist majority, dominated by
the Smallholders Party. As it had done elsewhere in Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union insisted that
the army and police be controlled by communists; however, it did not interfere in Hungary's
affairs, as long as the new government pursued a foreign policy acceptable to the USSR. However,
when the government began cultivating the favour of the United States, the Soviets ordered the
arrest of a former leader of the Smallholders Party. By early 1947, the limits of Hungarian
democracy became clear.
Stalin's decision to "communise" Hungary came three months later, in the wake of US actions in
Italy and France. Up until 1947, Italy and France had been run by coalition governments which
had included members of their respective communist parties. These parties had prospered in the
economic chaos which followed the war, but faced opposition from the United States, which
regarded their growth as a threat to peace and democracy. In consequence, the US made it clear
that the provision of economic aid was dependent upon the expulsion of all communists from the
Italian and French governments. Both nations complied in May 1947, and loans were quickly
approved.
The American decision gave Stalin the pretext he needed to remove non-communists from the
Hungarian government. In late May, Premier Ferenc Nagy was implicated in an espionage scandal,
and was forced into exile. The communists tightened their grip over the government. Later that
year, they were elected "overwhelmingly" in a ballot marred by intimidation and fraud.
Poland's post-war fate was decided in exactly the same way. An election was held in January
1947, which resulted in victory for the communist-dominated "Democratic Bloc". Again,
communist control over the police was crucial to the outcome.
By the end of 1947, Czechoslovakia was the only democracy left in the Soviet sphere of
influence. It succeeded in retaining a Western-style system of government by adopting a Sovietaligned foreign policy. Such a stance, however, was unacceptable to the United States. When the
Czech harvest failed in the Summer of 1947, the government appealed to the United States for
help. The US insisted that Czechoslovakia alter its foreign policy before aid would be given. The
USSR, on the other hand, offered generous quantities of grain. This had the effect of increased the
popularity of the Czech Communist Party, which already commanded the loyalty of over a third of
the population.
President Benes accepted the Russian offer, prompting 12 non-communist Cabinet members to
resign in protest. Fearing Soviet intervention if he did not accept their resignations, Benes
appointed a communist-dominated government in February 1948. Under orders from Moscow, the
communists set about eliminating their political opponents, using tactics developed in the other
Eastern Bloc nations.
Only Yugoslavia avoided falling under Soviet control. Tito had come to power without the aid
of the Soviet Army, and refused to act as one of Stalin's "stooges". When the Soviet dictator tried
to have him deposed, Tito broke with the USSR and pursued an independent foreign and domesic
policy.
The Marshall Plan and the division of Germany
By the middle of 1947, Western Europe was in a state of economic crisis. The war had not only
destroyed much of the Continent's industry and agriculture, it had also eliminated the old
economic order, based on the extraction of wealth from colonies. The United States found itself
exporting seven times as much to Europe as it was buying. With Lend Lease finished and UN
relief about to end, the nations of Western Europe would soon be unable to pay for its imports.
Economic collapse would soon follow.
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The United States now found itself facing three serious problems: how to contain the Soviet
Union; how to stop the spread of communism; and how to restore prosperity to Western Europe.
In the Marshall Plan, the it found a solution to all three difficulties. Soviet expansion could be
stopped if communism was stopped, and this could be achieved if prosperity was restored.
Germany was the key, since it represented the buffer between east and west.
In June 1945, US Secretary of State George Marshall announced a multi-billion dollar aid
program, known as the European Rocovery Program (ERP). Over a four year period, the United
States distributed at total of $22.4 billion to the nations of Western Europe. The principal recipient
was Germany, the nation responsible for the chaos Europe was now experiencing. The nations of
Eastern Europe were also offered aid, but only on condition that they broke with the Soviet Union
on foreign policy issues. Poland initially reacted favourably (even though it was already under
communist control), as did Czechoslovakia. However, their participation was vetoed by the
USSR, which saw the Marshall Plan as a threat to its control over Eastern Europe, and which also
objected to giving the United States access to its production statistics.
The Marshall Plan was important for two main reasons.
As far as the Soviet Union was concerned, it marked the end of any attempt to reach an
accommodation with the United States. Stalin now instructed the communist parties of Western
Europe to instigate strikes and other disruptive activities, in order to worsen the economic
situation. He also established the Cominform (the Communist Information Bureau) in September
1947, to coordinate the activities of the major communist parties.
As far as the United States was concerned, the Marshall Plan was an early example of the
Truman Doctrine in practice. Economic aid ensured that Western Germany was integrated into the
capitalist system, dependent upon the United States, and free of communist influence. More
importantly, the Plan opened the way for the formation of a West German state. This was a
prospect the Soviets feared, and set the stage for the first serious confrontation between the
Superpowers – over Berlin.
The Berlin Blockade and the formation of West Germany
In November 1947, the Four Powers met in London to discuss the future of Germany, but were
unable to reach an agreement. Fearing that a unified Germany would become a communist
Germany, the United States decided to establish a a separate West German state. It also decided to
form a Western military alliance, both as a counter to Soviet aggression and as a means of uniting
the fractious nations of Western Europe. Britain and the US would form the nucleus of this
alliance and American nuclear weapons would provide a counter to Soviet conventional
superiority.
In February 1948, the United States convened a new London Conference, attended by its allies
in Western Europe. This meeting decided that the first step towards political unification in West
Germany would be economic unification. A new currency was proposed. The Soviets reacted by
denouncing American plans to abandon the Four Power Council, which controlled the post-war
fate of Germany. Stalin made a personal appeal to Truman to return to the Potsdam arrangements,
but this was rejected. When the US announced immanent currency reforms in the west, the Soviets
closed off land access to Berlin, and cut the supply of electricity.
The US response came one day later – on June 24. Because the air routes to Berlin were
guaranteed by written agreements, the United States initiated a massive airlift of supplies. It also
sent three squadrons of "atomic capable" B29 bombers to Britain, an action which could only be
interpreted as an implicit nuclear threat to the USSR. In reality, the planes were not carrying
nuclear weapons, but the Russians were not to know this. Had the US chosen to defy the Russian
blockade and send convoys across the Soviet lines, Stalin would almost certainly have backed
down. He was not willing to risk war, given the fact that America still had a nuclear monopoly.
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However, Truman too was unwilling to risk military confrontation, given that he faced an election
in November. Besides, the airlift proved to be very successful, and provided a perfect propaganda
tool.
By January 1949, the Russians were desperate to end the blockade, since it had only served to
harden US resolve over Germany. In April of that year, NATO was signed, and in May the Federal
Republic of Germany came into being. That same month, the Soviets lifted the blockade. Stalin
was forced to take his revenge in Eastern Europe, where a campaign of terror was unleashed.
The Berlin Blockade was an important event in the Cold War because it justified the
establishment of a West German state and the formation of a Western alliance. More ominously,
the "bombers to Britain" ruse represented the first forward movement of the American nuclear
strike force. This gave the Soviets good reason to hasten their own nuclear program.
The Soviet atomic bomb
In August 1949, the Soviet Union detonated an atomic bomb - a mere four years after America's
first nuclear test. The USSR now possessed the capacity to inflict massive damage on the United
States. In response, a wave of hysteria washed over America. The people had been assured that the
US nuclear monopoly would last 20 years, and now they wanted someone to blame. Unscrupulous
politicians - led by Senator Joseph McCarthy – pandered to this paranoia by seeking out spies,
communists and "fellow travellers". In this atmosphere of fear and suspicion, few in the Truman
Administration were willing to question the wisdom of America's chosen course.
The Communist victory in China
In October 1949, the Chinese communists seized power after a 14 year civil war (1927-37 and
1945-49). The United States had supported the Nationalist forces of General Chiang Kai-shek,
both diplomatically and militarily, but had stopped short of direct military intervention. Truman
and his advisors recognised that sending ground troops would have involved a commitment well
beyond what the American public were prepared to accept. China had a population of half a
billion. Not even the United States could have subdued a nation that large.
The "loss of China" had a significant impact in Washington. Fearing that communism might
spread to neighbouring regions, the president extended the Truman Doctrine to Asia. He also
committed the United States to supporting the French in their war with the Vietnamese
nationalists (who were led by the communist Ho Chi Minh). These policies soon dragged America
into war, first with North Korea, then with China, and finally with the communist forces in
Vietnam.
NSC-68
In January 1950, Truman approved the development of the hydrogen bomb. He also ordered a
report into America's foreign and defence policies. This document was released in March 1950,
and became known as NSC-68. It concluded that the Soviet Union was intent on world conquest,
including the United States itself. NSC-68 recommended that the US undertake a massive
rearmament, trippling its defence budget. A justification for this increase was provided by the
North Korean attack on South Korea, on June 25. Congress quickly pass the appropriation bill,
and the United States found itself at war.
The Korean War
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The Korean War was the final blow which destroyed the Rooseveltian world order. As with
Germany, it had been intended that Korea be reunited after World War Two. However, the
Superpowers could not decide on its post-war fate, and so established their own client regimes in
their respective zones of occupation. The Russians withdrew their forces in December 1948, and
the Americans did likewise the following June. Neither Korean government recognised the
legitimacy of the other, and both were planning a war of unification. Despite the extension of the
Truman Doctrine to Asia, the United States still feared being dragged into a conflict on the
mainland. Hence, Secretary of State Dean Acheson excluded South Korea from America's defence
perimeter in a speech in January 1950. The North Koreans took this as evidence that they could
attack the South with impunity. But they had not counted on the strength of anti-communist
paranoia in the United States. President Truman was under intense pressure to hold the line
against communism, so he decided to send troops to South Korea anyway. With the Russians
absent from the United Nations in protest over China being denied international recognition, the
US pushed a motion through the Security Council condemning North Korean aggression and
sending military support to South Korea.
The communist advance into the South was initially very successful, but turned into a rout when
the Americans landed troops behind the Northern lines. The North Korean troops were quickly cut
off and destroyed. The UN forces then pushed north towards the Chinese border, prompting Mao
Tse-tung to send his own troops to North Korea's aid. The Chinese pushed the UN forces back to
roughly where the North-South border had been before the war, and here the front line remained
for the next two years.
When Dwight Eisenhower came to office in 1953, he was determined to end the fighting as soon
as possible. This he did by issuing a nuclear threat to China. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles
informed the Chinese government that unless it accepted America's armistice terms, the United
States would launch a nuclear attack against China. The Chinese seem to have believed him,
because they soon returned to the negotiating table. A truce was signed in July 1953. (Mao's
decision was probably helped by the futility of the fighting, and by the death of their ally Stalin
earlier that year.)
The Korean was was an important event in the Cold War for four main reasons. Firstly, it was
the first war fought between two of the principal Cold War antagonists (the United States and
China). Secondly, it confirmed everything the United States had feared about the expansionary
nature of communism. Thirdly, it facilitated the transformation of the United States into a
"national security state" - that is, a nation which projected its power into all corners of the world
and which remained in a permanent state of military readiness. Finally, and most ominously, the
war demonstrated the efficacy of force – particularly nuclear force – to resolve international
disputes. The stage was set for the most dangerous military confrontation in history – the Cuban
Missile Crisis.
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