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http://fymaaa.blogspot.com/2010/02/arta-sacra-si-puterea-ei-vindecatoare.html Alex Grey (born November 29, 1953) is an American artist specializing in spiritual and psychedelic art (or visionary art) that is sometimes associated with the New Age movement. Grey is a Vajrayana practitioner. His body of work spans a variety of forms including performance art, process art, installation art, sculpture, visionary art, and painting. Grey is a member of the Integral Institute. He is also on the board of advisors for the Center for Cognitive Liberty and Ethics, and is the Chair of Wisdom University's Sacred Art Department. He and his wife Allyson Grey are the co-founders of the Chapel of Sacred Mirrors, a non-profit institution supporting Visionary Culture in New York City. Vajrayāna Buddhism (Devanagari: वज्रयान; Mongolian: Очирт хөлгөн, Ochirt Hölgön) is also known as Tantric Buddhism, Tantrayāna, Mantrayāna, Secret Mantra, Esoteric Buddhism and the Diamond Vehicle. The period of Vajrayana Buddhism has been classified as the fifth[1] or final[2] period of Indian Buddhism. Vajrayana is a complex and multifaceted system which evolved over several centuries and reveals much inconsistency and a variety of opinions.[2] Vajrayana probably came into existence in the 6th or 7th century CE,[1] while the term Vajrayana first came into evidence in the 8th century CE.[2] Its scriptures are called the Tantras.[2] The distinctive feature of Vajrayana Buddhism is ritual, which is used as a substitute or alternative for the earlier abstract meditations.[3][4] Vajrayana scriptures say that Vajrayana refers to one of three routes to enlightenment, the other two being Hinayana and Mahayana. Name The term "vajra" denoted the thunderbolt, a legendary weapon and divine attribute that was made from an adamantine, or indestructible, substance and which could therefore pierce and penetrate any obstacle or obfuscation. As a secondary meaning, "vajra" refers to this indestructible substance, and so is sometimes translated as "adamantine" or "diamond". So the Vajrayana is sometimes rendered in English as "The Adamantine Vehicle" or "The Diamond Vehicle". A vajra is also a scepter-like ritual object, which has a sphere (and sometimes a gankyil) at its centre, and a variable number of spokes (depending on the sadhana), enfolding either end of the rod. The vajra is often traditionally employed in tantric rituals in combination with the bell or ghanta; symbolically, the vajra may represent method as well as great bliss and the bell stands for wisdom, specifically the wisdom realizing emptiness or lack of inherent existence. [edit] Terms for practitioners of Vajrayana As scholar Isabelle Onians explains: “Tantric Buddhism” . . . is not the transcription of a native term, but a rather modern coinage, if not totally occidental. For the equivalent Sanskrit tāntrika is found, but not in Buddhist texts. Tāntrika is a term denoting someone who follows the teachings of scriptures known as Tantras, but only in Saivism, not Buddhism (although cf. the single known occurrence in a copper-plate inscription from Nālandā made in the name of the Javanese king Devapāla in the ninth century AD:, tāntrikabodhisattvaganasya; SIRCAR 1983:II .37-38; ref. provided by Sanderson). Indeed, Alexis Sanderson has noted that it is usually used of followers of another tradition, by proponents of the Trika of practitioners of the Bhairava tantras, for example, and thus with a slightly pejorative tone, unlike the simple noun tantra (personal communication). Tantric Buddhism is a name for a phenomenon which calls itself, in Sanskrit, Mantranaya, Vajrayāna, Mantrayāna or Mantramahāyāna (and apparently never Tantrayāna). Its practitioners are known as mantrins, yogis, or sādhakas. Thus, our use of the anglicised adjective “Tantric” for the Buddhist religion taught in Tantras is not native to the tradition, but is a borrowed term which serves its purpose.[5] [edit] Difficulties of the academic study of Vajrayana Serious academic study of Vajrayana is still in its early stages, because of a number of problems that make research difficult:[6] 1. Although a large number of Tantric scriptures are extant, they have not been put into any kind of order. 2. Because Vajrayana was influenced by Hinduism, further research into Hinduism is necessary. 3. Ritual as well as doctrine need to be investigated. [edit] Classifying Vajrayana [edit] Vajrayana as a newly composed teaching The literature of Vajrayana is absent from the oldest Buddhist literature of the Pali Canon and the Agamas. Vajrayana claims that its teachings were first expounded by the Buddha 16 years after his enlightenment. Historians have identified an early stage of Mantrayana beginning in the 4th century CE, and claim that assigning the teachings to the historical Buddha is 'patently absurd'[7]. Only from 7th[7] or the beginning of the 8th century CE, tantric techniques and approaches increasingly dominated Buddhist practice in India.[8] The first tantric (Vajrayana Buddhist) texts appeared in the 3rd century CE, and continued to appear until the 12th century CE.[9] [edit] Vajrayana as evolved from the local conditions of Medieval India Although the Vajrayana claims to be as ancient and authentic as any other Buddhist school, it evidently grew up gradually in an environment with previously existing texts such as the mahasannipata and the ratnaketudharani[10]. The basic position of Vajrayana is still the same as the early Buddhist position of not-self: there is nothing which is eternal[11]. The changes that took place agreed with the changing society of medieval India: the presentation has changed, the techniques of the way to enlightenment have changed, the outward appearance of Buddhism came to be dominated by ritualism and the array of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas and gods and goddesses.[12] [edit] Classification based on Vajrayana scriptures and commentaries The tantric scriptures and its commentaries provide three strategies to discuss the theoretical nature of Vajrayana Buddhism:[2] 1. Vajrayana as a subset of Mahayana Buddhism 2. Vajrayana as a fruitional or advanced vehicle (where Mahayana is a prelude to Vajrayana) 3. Vajrayana as the sorcerer’s discipline (vidyadharasamvara) [edit] Vajrayana as a subset of Mahayana Buddhism According to this schema, Indian Mahayana revealed two vehicles (yana) or methods for attaining enlightenment: the method of the perfections (Paramitayana) and the method of mantra (Mantrayana).[13] The Paramitayana consists of the six or ten paramitas, of which the scriptures say that it takes three incalculable aeons to lead one to Buddhahood. The tantra literature, however, claims that the Mantrayana leads one to Buddhahood in one single life.[14] According to the literature, the mantra is an easy path without the difficulties innate to the Paramitanaya.[15] Mantrayana is sometimes portrayed as a method for those of inferior abilities.[16] However the practitioner of the mantra still has to adhere to the vows of the Bodhisattva.[17] When viewed as a subset of Mahayana, it is one of two paths of practice: the Sutrayana method of perfecting good qualities and the Vajrayāna method of taking the intended outcome of Buddhahood as the path. Vajrayana techniques are aimed at making it possible to experience Buddha-nature prior to full enlightenment. In order to transmit these experiences, a body of esoteric knowledge has been accumulated by Buddhist tantric yogis and is passed via lineages of transmission. In order to access this knowledge, the practitioner requires initiation from a skilled spiritual teacher or guru.[18] [edit] Vajrayana as fruitional vehicle According to the Vajrayana theory, Vajrayana refers to one of the three routes to enlightenment, the other two being Hinayana and Mahayana. According to this view, there were three "turnings of the wheel of dharma":[7] 1. In the first turning Shakyamuni Buddha taught the Four Noble Truths at Varanasi in the 5th century BC, which led to the founding of Buddhism and the later early Buddhist schools. Details of the first turning are described in the Dhammacakkapavattana Sutta. The oldest scriptures do not mention any further turnings other than this first turning. 2. The Mahayana tradition claims that there was a second turning in which the Perfection of Wisdom sutras were taught at Vulture's Peak, which led to the Mahayana schools. Generally, scholars conclude that the Mahayana scriptures (including the Perfection of Wisdom Sutras) were composed from the first century CE onwards.[19] 3. According to the Vajrayana tradition, there was a third turning which took place at Dhanyakataka sixteen years after the Buddha's enlightenment. Scholars have strongly denied that Vajrayana appeared at that time,[7] and placed it at a much later time. The first tantric (Vajrayana Buddhist) texts appeared in the 3rd century CE, and they continued to appear until the 12th century CE.[20] [edit] Vajrayana as an esoteric discipline Vajrayana teaches that in order to access esoteric knowledge, the practitioner requires initiation from a skilled spiritual teacher or guru.[21] [edit] Vajrayana textual tradition Harunaga Isaacson, a leading scholar of Vajrayana Buddhism, remarks: "though we do not know precisely at present just how many Indian tantric Buddhist texts survive today in the language in which they were written, their number is certainly over one thousand five hundred; I suspect indeed over two thousand. A large part of this body of texts has also been translated into Tibetan, and a smaller part into Chinese. Aside from these, there are perhaps another two thousand or more works that are known today only from such translations. We can be certain as well that many others are lost to us forever, in whatever form. Of the texts that survive a very small proportion has been published; an almost insignificant percentage has been edited or translated reliably."[22] Isaacson notes that Vajrayana texts exhibit a wide range of literary characteristics—usually a mix of verse and prose, almost always in a Sanskrit that "transgresses frequently against classical norms of grammar and usage," although also occasionally in various Middle Indic dialects or elegant classical Sanskrit. [edit] Dunhuang: Tibetan tantric documents recovered from the Mogao Caves Dalton and Schaik (2007, revised) provide an excellent online catalogue listing 350 Tibetan Tantric Manuscripts from Dunhuang in the Stein Collection of the British Library which is currently fully accessible online in discrete digitized manuscripts; with the Wylie transcription of the manuscripts to be made discoverable online in future. [23] The 350 texts is just a small number compared to the vast cache of the Dunhuang manuscripts. [edit] Key features of Vajrayana A Buddhist ceremony in Ladakh. The distinction between traditions is not always rigid. For example, the tantra sections of the Tibetan Buddhist canon of texts sometimes include material not usually thought of as tantric outside the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, such as the Heart Sutra[24] and even versions of some material found in the Pali Canon.[25][26] [edit] Ritual The distinctive feature of Vajrayana Buddhism is ritual, which is used as a substitute or alternative for the earlier abstract meditations.[27][4] For Vajrayana Tibetan death rituals, see phowa. [edit] Goal and motivation The goal of spiritual practice within the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions is to become a bodhisattva, whereas the goal for Theravada practice is not specific to which type of enlightened being to become. As with the Mahayana, motivation is a vital component of Vajrayana practice, and Vajrayana teaches that all practices are to be undertaken with the motivation to achieve Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings. [edit] Upaya The Vajrayana is based on the concept of "skillful means" (Sanskrit: upaya) as formulated in Mahayana Buddhism. It is a system of lineages, whereby those who successfully receive an initiation (permission to practice) are seen to share in the mindstream of the realisation of a particular skillful means of the vajra Master. In the Vajrayana these skillful means mainly relate to tantric, Mahamudra or Dzogchen practices. Vajrayana teaches that the Vajrayana techniques provide an accelerated path to enlightenment.[citation needed] [edit] Two Truths Doctrine Vajrayana subscribes to the two truths doctrine of conventional and ultimate truths, which is present in all Buddhist tenet systems. [28][29] The two truths doctrine is a central concept in the Vajrayana path of practice and is the philosophical basis for its methods. The two truths identifies conventional a.k.a. relative - and absolute a.k.a. nirvana. Conventional truth is the truth of consensus reality, common-sense notions of what does and does not exist. Ultimate truth is reality as viewed by an awakened, or enlightened mind. In the Sutrayana practice, a path of Mahayana, the "path of the cause" is taken, whereby a practitioner starts with his or her potential Buddha-nature and nurtures it to produce the fruit of Buddhahood. In the Vajrayana the "path of the fruit" is taken whereby the practitioner takes his or her innate Buddha-nature as the means of practice. The premise is that since we innately have an enlightened mind, practicing seeing the world in terms of ultimate truth can help us to attain our full Buddha-nature.[30] Experiencing ultimate truth is said to be the purpose of all the various tantric techniques practiced in the Vajrayana. Apart from the advanced meditation practices such as Dzogchen and Mahamudra, which aim to experience the empty nature of the enlightened mind that can see ultimate truth, all practices are aimed in some way at purifying the impure perception of the practitioner to allow ultimate truth to be seen. These may be ngondro, or preliminary practices, or the more advanced techniques of the tantric sadhana. [edit] Vows and behaviour Main article: Samaya In general, practitioners of the Vajrayana need to abide by various tantric vows or samaya of behaviour. These are extensions of the rules of the Pratimoksha vows and Bodhisattva vows for the lower levels of tantra, and are taken during initiations into the empowerment for a particular Anuttarayoga tantra. The special tantric vows vary depending on the specific mandala practice for which the initiation is received, and also depending on the level of initiation. A tantric guru, or teacher, is expected to keep his or her samaya vows in the same way as his students. Proper conduct is considered especially necessary for a qualified Vajrayana guru. For example, the Ornament for the Essence of Manjushrikirti states:[31] Distance yourself from Vajra Masters who are not keeping the three vows who keep on with a root downfall, who are miserly with the Dharma, and who engage in actions that should be forsaken. Those who worship them go to hell and so on as a result. The Ngagpa Yogis from the Nyingma school keep a special lay ordination. [edit] Esoteric transmission Main article: Esoteric transmission Vajrayana Buddhism is esoteric, in the sense that the transmission of certain teachings only occurs directly from teacher to student during an initiation or empowerment and cannot be simply learned from a book. Many techniques are also commonly said to be secret, but some Vajrayana teachers have responded that secrecy itself is not important and only a side-effect of the reality that the techniques have no validity outside the teacher-student lineage.[32] In order to engage in Vajrayana practice, a student should have received such an initiation or permission. Reginald Ray writes that "If these techniques are not practiced properly, practitioners may harm themselves physically and mentally. In order to avoid these dangers, the practice is kept "secret" outside the teacher/student relationship. Secrecy and the commitment of the student to the vajra guru are aspects of the samaya (Tib. damtsig), or "sacred bond", that protects both the practitioner and the integrity of the teachings."[21] The teachings may also be considered "self-secret", meaning that even if they were to be told directly to a person, that person would not necessarily understand the teachings without proper context. In this way the teachings are "secret" to the minds of those who are not following the path with more than a simple sense of curiosity.[33][34] The esoteric transmission framework can take varying forms. The Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism uses a method called Dzogchen. The Tibetan Kagyu school and the Shingon school in Japan use an alternative method called Mahamudra. [edit] Sub-schools Although there is historical evidence for Vajrayana Buddhism in Southeast Asia and elsewhere (see History of Vajrayana below), today the Vajrayana exists primarily in the form of two major sub-schools, with one minor subschool. [edit] Tibetan Buddhism [show] Part of a series on Tibetan Buddhism Main article: Tibetan Buddhism The Tibetan Buddhist schools, based on the lineages and textual traditions of the Kangyur and Tengyur of Tibet, are found in Tibet, Bhutan, northern India, Nepal, southwestern and northern China, Mongolia and various constituent republics of Russia that are adjacent to the area, such as Amur Oblast, Buryatia, Chita Oblast, the Tuva Republic and Khabarovsk Krai. Tibetan Buddhism is also the main religion in Kalmykia. Vajrayana Buddhism was established in Tibet in the 8th Century when Śāntarakṣita was brought to Tibet from India at the instigation of the Dharma King Trisong Detsen, some time before 767 CE. He established the basis of what later came to be known as the Nyingma school. As a Tantric Mahasiddha Padmasambhava's contribution ensured that Tibetan Buddhism became part of the Vajrayana tradition. While Vajrayana Buddhism is a part of Tibetan Buddhism in that it forms a core part of every major Tibetan Buddhist school, it is not identical with it. Buddhist scholar Alexander Berzin refers to "the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions of Tibetan Buddhism".[35] Training in the "common paths" of Sutra (including Lamrim) are said to be the foundation for the "uncommon path" of Vajrayana.[36] The Vajrayana techniques add 'skillful means' to the general Mahayana teachings for advanced students. The 'skillful means' of the Vajrayana in Tibetan Buddhism refers to tantra techniques, Dzogchen (Tibetan:maha-ati) and Mahamudra (Tibetan:Chagchen). [edit] Shugendo Buddhism Main article: Shugendō Founded 1300 years ago in Japan by the ascetic En no Gyōja, and based on the Queen's Peacocks Sutra, Shugendo is considered as the foundation of Vajrayana in Japan.[citation needed] Vajrayana of Shugendo (shugen mikkyo) is a Dharma teaching wherein the mountain is considered as the "supernatural mandala." [edit] Shingon Buddhism Japanese Buddhism Schools Tendai • Shingon Pure Land • Zen Nichiren Founders Saichō • Kūkai Hōnen • Shinran Dōgen • Eisai • Ingen Nichiren Sacred Texts Avatamsaka Sutra Lotus Sutra Prajnaparamita Heart Sutra Infinite Life Sutra Mahavairocana Tantra Vajrasekhara Sutra Glossary of Japanese Buddhism view • talk • edit Main article: Shingon Buddhism The Shingon school is found in Japan and includes practices, known in Japan as Mikkyo, which are similar in concept to those in Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism. The lineage for Shingon Buddhism differs from that of Tibetan Vajrayana, having emerged from India and Central Asia (via China) and is based on earlier versions of the Indian texts than the Tibetan lineage. Shingon shares material with Tibetan Buddhism–-such as the esoteric sutras (called Tantras in Tibetan Buddhism) and mandalas – but the actual practices are not related. The primary texts of Shingon Buddhism are the Mahavairocana Sutra and Vajrasekhara Sutra. The founder of Shingon Buddhism was Kukai, a Japanese monk who studied in China in the 9th century during the Tang Dynasty and brought back Vajrayana scriptures, techniques and mandalas then popular in China. The school mostly died out or was merged into other schools in China towards the end of the Tang Dynasty but flourished in Japan. Shingon is one of the few remaining branches of Buddhism in the world that continues to use the siddham script of the Sanskrit language. [edit] Tendai Buddhism Main article: Tendai Although the Tendai school in China and Japan does employ some esoteric practices, these rituals came to be considered of equal importance with the exoteric teachings of the Lotus Sutra. By chanting mantras, maintaining mudras, or practicing certain forms of meditation, Tendai maintains that one is able to understand sense experiences as taught by the Buddha, have faith that one is innately an enlightened being, and that one can attain enlightenment within the current lifetime. [edit] Newar Buddhism Main article: Newar Buddhism Newar Buddhism is practiced by Newars in Nepal. This is the only form of Vajrayana Buddhism in which the scriptures are written in Sanskrit. Its priests do not follow celibacy and are called Vajracharyas. [edit] Tantra techniques Main article: Tantra techniques (Vajrayana) According to the Vajrayana tradition,[37] at certain times the bodymind[38] is in a very subtle state which can be used by advanced practitioners to transform the mindstream. Such liminal times are known in Tibetan Buddhism as Bardo states and include such transitional states as during meditation, dreaming, sex and death. [edit] Deity yoga Deity yoga (Tibetan: lha'i rnal 'byor; Sanskrit: Devata) is the fundamental Vajrayana practice, often involving a sadhana liturgy and form, in which practitioners visualize themselves as the meditation Buddha or yidam. The purpose of Deity yoga is to bring the meditator to the realization that the deity and the practitioner are in essence the same, and non-dual. By visualizing oneself and one's environment entirely as a projection of mind, it helps the practitioner to become familiar with the mind's ability and habit of projecting conceptual layers over all experience. This experience undermines a habitual belief that views of reality and self are solid and fixed. Deity yoga enables the practitioner to release, or 'purify' him or herself from spiritual obscurations (Sanskrit: klesha) and to practice compassion and wisdom simultaneously. Beer (2004: p. 142) states:[39] Deity Yoga employs highly refined techniques of creative imagination, visualisation, and photism in order to selfidentify with the divine form and qualities of a particular deity as the union of method or skilful means and wisdom. As His Holiness the Dalai Lama says, "In brief, the body of a Buddha is attained through meditating on it". The realization of Deity yoga is attained as a result of pure concentration on bringing the three bodies into the path, in which the practitioner mentally generates themselves as a Tantric Deity (Sanskrit: Yidam) and their surroundings as the Deity's mandala. The purpose of doing this is to overcome ordinary appearances and conceptions which, according to Vajrayana, are the obstructions to nirvana and omniscience.[40] Recent studies indicate that Deity yoga yields quantifiable improvements in the practitioner's ability to process visuospatial information, specifically those involved in working visuospatial memory.[41] [edit] Four complete purities Four Purities (Tibetan: yongs su dag pa bzhi; yongs dag bzhi)[42] In defining Vajrayana, Yuthok et al. identify the "Four Purities" which define the principal Tantric methodology of Deity Yoga that distinguishes it from the rest of Buddhism:[43] Vajrayana...is a subdivision of Mahayana, which may be divided into Sutrayana and Vajrayana (or Tantrayana). Vajrayana is regarded as a swifter path and is considered superior to Sutrayana. Whereas Sutrayana focuses on the causal method, Vajrayana teaches the Resultant method [sic] because it includes the 'four purities': (1) purity of environment (2) purity of body (3) purity of resources and (4) purity of deeds. Geshe Kelsang Gyatso explains: Tantra is defined as an inner realization that functions to prevent ordinary appearances and conceptions and to accomplish the four complete purities... The four complete purities are the pure environment, body, enjoyments and activities of a Buddha.[44] Kalachakranet identifies and defines the "Four Purities" in a complementary though different fashion:[45] The main tantric practices can be summarised in the "Four Purities": 1. Seeing one's body as the body of the deity 2. Seeing one's environment as the pure land or mandala of the deity 3. Perceiving one's enjoyments as bliss of the deity, free from attachment 4. Performing one's actions only for the benefit of others (bodhichitta motivation, altruism)[46] Imagery and ritual in deity yoga: representations of the deity, such as a statues (murti), paintings (thangka), or mandala, are often employed as an aid to visualization, in Deity yoga. Mandalas are sacred enclosures, sacred architecture that house and contain the uncontainable essence of a yidam. In the book The World of Tibetan Buddhism, the Dalai Lama describes mandalas thus: "This is the celestial mansion, the pure residence of the deity." In the same context, all ritual in Vajrayana practice can be seen as aiding in this process of visualization and identification. The practitioner can use various hand implements such as a vajra, bell, hand-drum (damaru) or a ritual dagger (phurba), but also ritual hand gestures (mudras) can be made, special chanting techniques can be used, and in elaborate offering rituals or initiations, many more ritual implements and tools are used, each with an elaborate symbolic meaning to create a special environment for practice. Vajrayana has thus become a major inspiration in traditional Tibetan art. [edit] Guru yoga Guru yoga (or teacher practice) (Tibetan: bla ma'i rnal 'byor)[47] is a practice that has many variations, but may be understood as a tantric devotional process whereby the practitioners unite their mindstream with the mindstream of the guru. The guru is engaged as yidam, as a nirmanakaya manifestation of a Buddha. The process of guru yoga might entail visualization of an entire lineage of masters (refuge tree) as an invocation of the lineage. It usually involves visualization of the guru above or in front of the practitioner. Guru yoga may entail a liturgy or mantra such as the Prayer in Seven Lines. (Tibetan: tshig bdun gsol 'debs)[48] The Guru or spiritual teacher is essential as a guide during tantric practice, as without their example, blessings and grace, genuine progress is held to be impossible for all but the most keen and gifted. Many tantric texts qualify the Three Jewels of Buddha, Dharma and Sangha thus: "The Guru is Buddha, the Guru is Dharma, the Guru is also Sangha"[49] to reflect their importance for the disciple. The guru is considered even more compassionate and more potent than the Buddha because we can have a direct relationship with the guru. The guru therefore appears with the yidam and dakini in the Three Roots refuge formulation of the three factors essential for tantric attainments. [edit] Death yoga Death yoga (or "bringing the three bodies into the path of death, intermediate state (bardo) and rebirth"[50]) is another important aspect of Tantra techniques. Although it is sometimes called "death yoga," it is mainly practiced during life, in meditation. It can be practiced first according to generation stage, and then according to completion stage. The accumulation of meditative practice helps to prepare the practitioner for what they need to do at the time of death. At the time of death the mind is in a subtle state (clear light) that can open the mind to enlightenment if it is skilfully used to meditate on emptiness (shunyata). During completion stage meditation it is possible to manifest a similar clear light mind and to use it to meditate on emptiness. This meditation causes dualistic appearances to subside into emptiness and enables the practitioner to destroy their ignorance and the imprints of ignorance that are the obstructions to omniscience. It is said that masters like Lama Tsong Khapa used these techniques to achieve enlightenment during the death process. Actually, there are three stages at which it is possible to do this: at the end of the death process, during the bardo (or 'in between period') and during the process of rebirth. During these stages, the mind is in a very subtle state, and an advanced practitioner can use these natural states to make significant progress on the spiritual path. The Tibetan Book of the Dead is an important commentary for this kind of traditional practice. This death yoga should not be confused with the non-Tantric meditation on impermanence and death, which is a common practice within Buddhist traditions used to overcome desirous attachment. Another Tibetan ritual practice related to death is phowa (transference of one's consciousness), which can be done by oneself at the moment of death or by ritual specialists, phowa-lamas, on behalf of the dead. For the Anuttarayoga Tantras (Tib. rnal-’byor bla-med-kyi-rgyud), transfering one’s consciousness constitutes one of the two ways to separate the coarse and subtle bodies through meditation. Daniel Cozort explains that ’pho-ba (phowa) merely separates the coarse and subtle bodies without leading to the attainment of an “illusory body” (Tib. sgyu-lus). On the other hand, during the perfection type meditation, known as the “final mental isolation” (Tibetan: sems-dben) because it necessitates the presence of an “actual consort” (Tib. las-rgya), “the winds are totally dissolved in the indestructible drop” and “the fundamental wind naturally rises into an illusory body”[51] [edit] Generation and completion stage practice in the annutarayoga tantras Main article: Generation stage Main article: Completion stage In the highest class of tantra, two stages of practice are distinguished. In the first stage of generation, one practices oneself in the identification with the meditational Buddha (yidam), generally until one can meditate single-pointedly on 'being' the deity (see above, deity yoga). In the next stage of completion, one engages in practices with the subtle energy system of the body (chakras and energy channels etc.) to actualize the physical and mental transformation into the meditation Buddha. (Similar practices are also found in Hindu tantra and yoga.) In some Buddhist tantras, both stages can be practiced simultaneously, whereas in others, one first actualizes the generation stage before continuing with the completion stage practices. Details of these practices are normally only explained to practitioners by their teachers after receiving an initiation or 'permission to practice'. [edit] Classifications of tantra [edit] By scholars The scholar J.M. Kitagawa says that Tantrayana may be divided into three main types of tantra[7]: 1. Vajrayana - established the symbolic terminology and the liturgy that would characterize all forms of the tradition.[7] 2. Sahajayana - was dominated by long-haired, wandering siddhas who openly challenged and ridiculed the Buddhist establishment.[7] 3. Kalachakra Tantra - is farthest removed from the earlier Buddhist traditions, and incorporates concepts of messianism and astrology not present elsewhere in Buddhist literature.[7] [edit] By the New Translation Schools The Sarma or New Translation schools of Tibetan Buddhism (Gelug, Sakya, and Kagyu) divide the Tantras into four hierarchical categories, namely: Kriyayoga (action tantra) Charyayoga (performance tantra) Yogatantra (yoga tantra) Anuttarayogatantra (highest yoga tantra) o further divided into "mother", "father" and "non-dual" tantras. [edit] By the Ancient Translation School A different division is used by the Nyingma or Ancient school: Three Outer Tantras: o Kriyayoga o Charyayoga o Yogatantra Three Inner Tantras, which correspond to the Anuttarayogatantra: o Mahayoga o Anuyoga o Atiyoga (Tib. Dzogchen) The practice of Atiyoga is further divided into three classes: Mental SemDe, Spatial LongDe, and Esoteric Instructional MenNgagDe. [edit] History of Vajrayana [hide] Part of a series on Buddhism Portal of Buddhism Outline of Buddhism History of Buddhism Timeline - Buddhist councils Major figures Gautama Buddha Disciples · Later Buddhists Dharma or concepts Four Noble Truths Noble Eightfold Path Three marks of existence Dependent origination Saṃsāra · Nirvāṇa Skandha · Cosmology Karma · Rebirth Practices and attainment Buddhahood · Bodhisattva 4 stages of enlightenment Wisdom · Meditation Smarana · Precepts · Pāramitās Three Jewels · Monastics Laity Countries and regions Schools Theravāda · Mahāyāna Vajrayāna Texts Chinese canon · Pali canon Tibetan canon Related topics Comparative studies Cultural elements Criticism This box: view • talk • edit [edit] India There are differing views as to where in the Indian sub-continent Vajrayana began. Some believe it originated in Bengal,[52] now divided between the Republic of India and Bangladesh, with others claiming it began in Uddiyana, located by some scholars in the modern day Swat Valley in Pakistan, or in South India. In the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, it is claimed that the historical Shakyamuni Buddha taught tantra, but that since these are 'secret' teachings, confined to the guru/disciple relationship, they were generally written down long after the Buddha's other teachings, the Pali Canon and the Mahayana sutras. The earliest texts appeared around the early 4th century. Nalanda University in eastern India became a center for the development of Vajrayana theory, although it is likely that the university followed, rather than led, the early Tantric movement. India would continue as the source of leading-edge Vajrayana practices up until the 11th century producing many renowned Mahasiddha. (Vajrayana) Buddhism had mostly died out in India by the 13th century, and tantric religions of Buddhism and Hinduism were also experiencing pressure from invading Islamic armies. By that time, the vast majority of the practices were also available in Tibet, where they were preserved until recently. In the second half of the 20th century a sizable number of Tibetan exiles fled the oppressive, antireligious rule of the Communist Chinese to establish Tibetan Buddhist communities in northern India, particularly around Dharamsala. They remain the primary practitioners of Tantric Buddhism in India and the entire world. [edit] Sambalpur Indrabhuti, the oldest known king of Sambalpur founded vajrayana, while his sister, who was married to yuvaraja Jalendra of Lankapuri (Suvarnapur), founded Sahajayana. These new Tantric cults of Buddhism introduced Mantra, Mudra and Mandala along with six Tantric Abhicharas (practices) such as Marana, Stambhana, Sammohana, Vidvesan, Uchchatana and Vajikarana. The Tantric Buddhist sects made efforts to raise the dignity of the lowest of the low of the society to a higher plane. It revived primitive beliefs and practices, a simpler and less formal approach to the personal god, a liberal and respectful attitude towards women, and a denial of the caste system. From the seventh century A.D. onwards, many popular religious elements of heterogenous nature were incorporated into Mahayana Buddhism which finally resulted in the origin of Vajrayana, Kalachakrayana and Sahajayana Tantric Buddhism. Tantric Buddhism first developed in Uddiyana, a country which was divided into two kingdoms, Sambhala and Lankapuri.Sambhala has been identified with Sambalpur and Lankapuri with Suvarnapura (Sonepur). Many celebrated Vajrayana Acharyas like Sarah, Hadipa, Dombi, Heruka, Tantipa and Luipa came from the so-called "despised classes." The cult exerted a tremendous influence over the tribal and despised classes of people of Sambalpur Bolangir region. It was in the 9th/10th century A.D. that there appeared seven famous Tantric maidens at Patna (Patnagarh) region which was then called Kuanri-Patana. These maidens are popularly known as Satvaheni (Seven sisters), namely, Gyanadei Maluni, Luhakuti, Luhuruni, Nitei Dhobani, Sukuti Chamaruni, Patrapindhi Savaruni, Gangi Gauduni and sua Teluni. They hailed from the so-called low castes of society and were followers of Lakshminkara. Because of their miraculous power and feats, they were later on deified and worshipped by the folk people. A systematic analysis of the trend of religious development of the period under review, and circumstantial evidence, reveals that Chakra Sambar Tantricism of Tantric Buddhism gained popularity in the Gandhagiri region. The chief deity of Chakra Sambara Tantra is Buddha Sambara, the deity whose worship is still popular in China and Tibet. According to Sadhanamala, god Buddha Sambara is onefaced and two-armed. He appears terrible with his garment of tiger-skin, garland of heads, a string of skulls round the head, three eyes and in Âlidhamudrâ, he tramples upon kalaratri. A number of texts relating to the procedures of worship of god Buddha Sambara have been composed by siddhacharyas like Darikapa, Santideva, Jayadratha and others. King Indrabhuti of Shambala (Sambalpur) composed the Chakra Sambara Stotra, Chakra Sambara Anubandha Samgraha, Chakra Sambara Tantraraga, the Chakra Sambara Samuchchaya Nama Brutti, and others. The philosopher-king Indrabhuti became the source and inspiration for the adherents of Tantric Buddhist cults in Western Orissa, including in the Gandhagiri region. Indrabhuti and Laksminkara, the two royal Buddhist Acharyas, attracted a mass of followers to their cults. In the 9th-10th century A.D., the worship and Sadhana of Buddha Sambara, the presiding deity of Chakra Sambara Tantra, gained popularity in the Gandhagiri region. In Gandhagiri which also contains a large number of caves and rock-shelters, apparently of the Vajrayanists and Sahajayanists, the adherents of the cults used to live in seclusion and practice Kaya Sadhana or Yogic practices, along with worshipping god Buddha Sambara. [edit] China Vajrayana followed the same route into northern China as Buddhism itself, arriving from India via the Silk Road some time during the first half of the 7th century C.E. (Tang Dynasty). According to Tripitaka Master Shramana Hsuan Hua,[53], the most popular example of "Chinese Secret School", still practiced in many Chan monasteries of China, Korea, Vietnam and Japan, is the Shurangama Sutra with its Shurangama Mantra and the Dharani Sutra with its Great Compassion Mantra with its 42 Hands and Eyes Mantras. These "secret school" mantrayana practices arrived just as Buddhism was reaching its zenith in China, receiving sanction from the emperors of the Tang Dynasty. The Tang capital at Chang'an (modernday Xi'an) became an important center for Buddhist studies (especially the Nalanda tradition, and Vajrayana ideas no doubt received great attention as pilgrim monks returned from India with the latest texts and methods from major centers of learning like Nalanda Monastery. (see Buddhism in China, Journey to the West). According to American Buddhist Monk Losang Jinpa, who is from both the Chinese Chan and Tibetan Nalanda traditions:[54] “ "There is a common misconception among Tibetan Buddhists that the Vajrayana either no longer exists in Chinese Buddhism or never existed in Chinese Buddhism in the first place. In daily practice, this is not the case. Thanks to the pervasive and timeless popularity of the required Chinese 'Morning Ceremony' (Zao ke) with its 40 minutes of chanting the Shurangama Mantra, Great Compassion Mantra and the Ten Small Mantras, one can observe that most monastic practitioners at Chinese and Vietnamese Buddhism Vietnamese Buddhist Monasteries (such as City of Ten Thousand Buddhas and Jen Chen temples) in the USA and Taiwan practicing daily mantra sadhana practice combined with mandala visualization and meditation on emptiness as 'clear light'. However, these practices are not publicly spoken of and 'advertised' like they are in Tibetan Buddhism, since they are, after all, 'Secret School' practices." ” [edit] Tibet and other Himalayan kingdoms In 747 the Indian master Padmasambhava traveled from Afghanistan to bring Vajrayana Buddhism to Tibet and Bhutan, at the request of the king of Tibet. This was the original transmission which anchors the lineage of the Nyingma school. During the 11th century and early 12th century a second important transmission occurred with the lineages of Atisa, Marpa and Brogmi, giving rise to the other schools of Tibetan Buddhism, namely Kadam, Kagyu, Sakya, and Geluk (the school of the Dalai Lama). [edit] Japan During the Tang Dynasty in China, when esoteric Buddhist practices reached their peak, Japan was actively importing Buddhism, its texts and teachings, by sending monks on risky missions across the sea to stay in China for two years or more. Depending on where the monk stay and trained, they might bring esoteric Buddhist material and training back to Japan, or not. In 804, monk Saicho came back from China with teachings from the Tiantai sect, but was also trained in esoteric lineages. When he later founded the Japanese Tendai sect, esoteric practices were integrated with the larger Tendai teachings, but Tendai is not an exclusively esoteric sect. Subsequent disciples of Saicho also returned from China in later years with further esoteric training, which helped to flesh out the lineage in Japan. On the same mission in 804, Emperor Kammu also sent monk Kūkai to the Tang Dynasty capital at Chang'an (present-day Xi'an). Kūkai absorbed the Vajrayana thinking from eminent Indian and Chinese Vajrayana teachers at the time, and synthesized a version of which he took back with him to Japan, where he founded the Shingon school of Buddhism, a school which continues to this day. Unlike Tendai, Shingon is a purely esoteric sect. [edit] Indonesian Archipelago The empire of Srivijaya in southeast Sumatra was already a center of Vajrayana learning when the monk I-Tsing resided there for six months in 671 CE, long before Padmasambhava brought the method to Tibet. In the 11th century CE, Atisha studied in Srivijaya under Serlingpa, an eminent Buddhist scholar and a prince of the Srivijayan ruling house. Through early economic relationships with the Srivijaya Empire, the Philippines came under the influence of Vajrayana.[citation needed] Vajrayana Buddhism also influenced the construction of Borobudur, a three-dimensional mandala, in central Java circa 800 CE. [edit] Mongolia Young Monk in Shalu Monastery, Shigatse, Tibet In the 13th century CE the Tibetan Buddhist teachers of the Sakya school, led by Sakya Pandita Kunga Gyaltsen took part in a religious debate with Christians and Muslims before the Mongolian royal court. As a result the Mongolian Prince Godan adopted Tibetan Buddhism as his personal religion, although not requiring it of his subjects. Drogön Chögyal Phagpa, Sakya Pandita's nephew, eventually converted Kublai Khan to Buddhism. Since the Khan conquered China and established the Yuan Dynasty which lasted from 1271 to 1368, this led to the renewal in China of the Tantric practices which had died out there many years earlier. Vajrayana practice declined in China and Mongolia with the fall of the Yuan Dynasty, although Mongolia saw another revival of Vajrayana in the 17th century, with the establishment of ties between the Dalai Lama in Tibet and the Mongolian princedoms. This revived the historic pattern of the spiritual leaders of Tibet acting as priests to the rulers of the Mongol empire. Having survived suppression by the Communists, Buddhism in Mongolia is today primarily of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism and is being re-invigorated following the fall of the Communist government. [edit] See also Buddhism in Bhutan Buddhism in Russia Tibetan Buddhist teachers Kumari Mikkyo Gyuto Order Pure Land Buddhism (Vajrayana Pure Land Buddhism, Tibet) Great Compassion Mantra -- Most popular form of Chinese Mantrayana Shurangama Mantra - Popular form of Chinese Vajrayana or "Secret School" 42 Hands and Eyes Mantras - Chinese Secret School Bodhichitta Dharani practice of Guanyin [edit] Notes 1. ^ a b History of Indian Buddhism - Hirakawa Akira (translated and edited by Paul Groner) Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1993, p. 9 2. ^ a b c d e Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 875-876 3. ^ Indian Buddhism, A.K.Warder, 1999, p.466 4. ^ a b Hawkins, Bradley K. Buddhism, p. 24. Routledge, 1999. ISBN 0-415-21162-X 5. ^ Isabelle Onians, "Tantric Buddhist Apologetics, or Antinomianism as a Norm," D.Phil. dissertation, Oxford, Trinity Term 2001 pg 8 6. ^ History of Indian Buddhism - Hirakawa Akira (translated and edited by Paul Groner) - Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, 1993, p. 9 7. ^ a b c d e f g h Kitagawa, Joseph Mitsuo. The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture, p. 80. Routledge, 2002. ISBN 0-7007-1762-5 8. ^ Buddhist Thought: A complete introduction to the Indian tradition by Paul Williams with Anthony Tribe. Routledge, 2000. ISBN 0-203-18593-5 pg 194 9. ^ Buddhist Thought: A complete introduction to the Indian tradition by Paul Williams with Anthony Tribe. Routledge, 2000. ISBN 0-203-18593-5 pg 194 10. ^ Indian Buddhism, A.K.Warder, 1999, p.459-461 11. ^ Indian Buddhism, A.K.Warder, 1999, p.477 12. ^ A.K.Warder, Indian Buddhism, 1999, p.477 13. ^ Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 875. 14. ^ Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 875. 15. ^ Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 875. 16. ^ Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 875. 17. ^ Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 875. 18. ^ Hawkins, Bradley K. Buddhism, p. 25. Routledge, 1999. ISBN 0-415-21162-X 19. ^ Large numbers of Mahayana sutras were being composed in the period between the beginning of the common era and the fifth century. MacMillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, 2004, page 494 20. ^ Paul Williams and Anthony Tribe, Buddhist Thought: A complete introduction to the Indian tradition, Routledge, 2000. ISBN 0-203-18593-5 pg 194. 21. ^ a b Ray, Reginald A. Secret of the Vajra World: The Tantric Buddhism of Tibet. Shambhala Publications, Boston: 2001 22. ^ Tantric Buddhism in India (from c. A.D. 800 to c. A.D. 1200). In: Buddhismus in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Band II. Hamburg. pp.23–49. (Internal publication of Hamburg University.) pg 3[1] 23. ^ Dalton, Jacob & van Schaik, Sam (2007). Catalogue of the Tibetan Tantric Manuscripts from Dunhuang in the Stein Collection [Online]. Second electronic edition. International Dunhuang Project. Source: [2] (accessed: Tuesday February 2, 2010) 24. ^ Conze, The Prajnaparamita Literature 25. ^ Skilling, Mahasutras, volume I, parts I & II, 1997, Pali Text Society, page 78, speaks of the tantra divisions of some editions of the Kangyur as including Sravakayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana texts 26. ^ Peter Skilling, Mahasutras, volume I, 1994, Pali Text Society[3], Lancaster, page xxiv 27. ^ Indian Buddhism, A.K.Warder, 1999, p.466 28. ^ Williams, Paul. Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies, p. 315. Routledge, 2006. ISBN 0-415-33226-5 29. ^ Berzin, Alexander (2007). The Two Truths in Vaibhashika and Sautrantika. March 2001; revised September 2002 and July 2006. Source: [4] (accessed: January 2, 2008). 30. ^ Palmo, Tenzin (2002). Reflections on a Mountain Lake:Teachings on Practical Buddhism. Snow Lion Publications. pp. 224–5. ISBN 1-55939-175-8. 31. ^ Tsongkhapa , Tantric Ethics: An Explanation of the Precepts for Buddhist Vajrayana Practice ISBN 0-86171-290-0, page 46. 32. ^ Dhammasaavaka. The Buddhism Primer: An Introduction to Buddhism, p. 79. ISBN 1-41166334-9 33. ^ Morreale, Don (1998) The Complete Guide to Buddhist America ISBN 1-57062-270-1 p.215 34. ^ Trungpa, Chögyam and Chödzin, Sherab (1992) The Lion's Roar: An Introduction to Tantra ISBN 0-87773-654-5 p. 144. 35. ^ "Berzin Archives". http://www.berzinarchives.com/web/en/index.html. Retrieved 2008-06-22. 36. ^ Tantric Grounds and Paths: How to Enter, Progress on, and Complete the Vajrayana Path, page 1, Tharpa Publications (1994) ISBN 978-0-948006-33-3 37. ^ Luminous Emptiness. 2001. Francesca Fremantle. Boston: Shambala Publications. ISBN 157062-450-X 38. ^ Arpaia, Joseph & D. Lobsang Rapgay (2004). Tibetan Wisdom for Modern Life. Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1955-1. 39. ^ Beer, Robert (2004). The Encyclopedia of Tibetan Symbols and Motifs. Serindia Publications, Inc. ISBN 1-932476-10-5. p.142. Source: [5] (accessed: January 9, 2008) 40. ^ Guide to Dakini Land, Tharpa Publications (2nd. ed., 1996) ISBN 978-0-948006-39-5 41. ^ M. Kozhevnikov, O. Louchakova, Z. Josipovic, and M.A. Motes (2009). ""The Enhancement of Visuospatial Processing Efficiency Through Buddhist Deity Meditation"". Psychological Science. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02345.x. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02345.x. 42. ^ Source: [6] (accessed: January 3, 2008) 43. ^ Yuthok, Choedak (1997) p.27. Lamdre: Dawn of Enlightenment. (Transcribed and edited by Pauline Westwood with valued assistance from Ot Rastsaphong, Rob Small, Brett Wagland and Whitethorn. Cover Design: Rob Small) Canberra, Australia: Gorum Publications. ISBN 0 9587085 0 9. Source: [7] (accessed: January 3, 2008) 44. ^ Mahamudra Tantra, page 19, Tharpa Publications (2005) ISBN 978-0-948006-93-7 45. ^ Kalachakranet (2006). Tantric Practice. Source: [8] (Source: January 3, 2008) 46. ^ Guide to Dakini Land: The Highest Yoga Tantra Practice of Buddha Vajrayogini, page 148ff Tharpa Publications (2nd. ed., 1996) ISBN 978-0-948006-39-5 47. ^ Rinpoche, Patrul (author); Brown, Kerry (ed.); and Sharma, Sima (ed.)(1994). The Words of My Perfect Teacher (Tibetan title: kunzang lama'i shelung). Translated by the Padmakara Translation Group. With a forward by the Dalai Lama. San Francisco, California, USA: HarperCollinsPublishers. ISBN 0-06-066449-5 (cloth: alk. paper). P.416 48. ^ Rinpoche, Patrul (author); Brown, Kerry (ed.); and Sharma, Sima (ed.)(1994). The Words of My Perfect Teacher (Tibetan title: kunzang lama'i shelung). Translated by the Padmakara Translation Group. With a forward by the Dalai Lama. San Francisco, California, USA: HarperCollinsPublishers. ISBN 0-06-066449-5 (cloth: alk. paper). P.442 49. ^ Lobsang Chökyi Gyaltsen, Offering to the Spiritual Guide (Tib. Lama Chopa), Tharpa Publications, p. 12 50. ^ Guide to Dakini Land, pages 109-119, Tharpa Publications (2nd. ed., 1996) ISBN 978-0948006-39-5 51. ^ Highest Yoga Tantra: An Introduction to the Esoteric Buddhism of Tibet. Ithaca: Snow Lion, 1986: p. 98. 52. ^ Banerjee, S. C. Tantra in Bengal: A Study in Its Origin, Development and Influence. Manohar. ISBN 81-85425-63-9. 53. ^ [|Hua, Gold Mountain Shramana Tripitaka Master Hsuan]; Bhikshuni Rev. Heng Chih, Bhikshuni Rev. Heng Hsien, David Rounds, Ron Epstein, et al (2003). The Shurangama Sutra Sutra Text and Supplements with Commentary by the Venerable Master Hsuan Hua - First Edition. Burlingame, California: Buddhist Text Translation Society. ISBN 0881399493. http://www.bttsonline.org/product.aspx?pid=165., Volume 1, pp. 68-71 54. ^ October 2008 Buddhist Healing Seminar by Venerable Losang Jinpa at Tse Chen Ling http://www.tsechenling.org, San Francisco FPMT Center [edit] Further reading Tantric Ethics: An Explanation of the Precepts for Buddhist Vajrayana Practice by Tson-Kha-Pa, ISBN 0-86171-290-0 Perfect Conduct: Ascertaining the Three Vows by Ngari Panchen, Dudjom Rinpoche, ISBN 086171-083-5 Buddhist Ethics (Treasury of Knowledge) by Jamgon Kongtrul Lodro Taye, ISBN 1-55939-191-X Āryadeva's Lamp that Integrates the Practices (Caryāmelāpakapradīpa): The Gradual Path of Vajrayāna Buddhism according to the Esoteric Community Noble Tradition, ed. and trans by Christian K. Wedemeyer (New York: AIBS/Columbia Univ. Press, 2007). ISBN 978-0-97537345-3 Tantra in Bengal: A Study of Its Origin, Development and Influence by S. C. Banerji A Study of Traditional Vajrayana Buddhism of Nepal Gyatso, Geshe Kelsang (2003). Tantric Grounds and Paths. Glen Spey: Tharpa Publications ISBN 978-0-948006-33-3. Gyatso, Geshe Kelsang (2005). Mahamudra Tantra. Glen Spey: Tharpa Publications ISBN 978-0948006-93-7. Arnold, Edward A. on behalf of Namgyal Monastery Institute of Buddhist Studies, fore. by Robert A. F. Thurman. As Long As Space Endures: Essays on the Kalacakra Tantra in Honor of H.H. the Dalai Lama Snow Lion Publications, 2009. [edit] External links Examples of Vajrayana Buddhist Mantras Trikaya del Lama Kunsal Kassapa The Berzin archive. Archive on texts and teachings of Vajrayana, Tibetan Buddhism, Islam and Bon Love and Passion in Tantric Buddhist Art A Buddhist View on Tantra About Tantra Introduction and explanation of Buddhist Tantra List of English words of Sanskrit origin From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This is a list of English words of Sanskrit origin. Many of these words were not directly borrowed from Sanskrit. The meanings of some words have changed slightly after being borrowed. Contents ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ Top of page — See also — External links [edit] A The ten avatars of Vishnu. Aditya from Sanskrit आदित्य āditya, the Vedic sun god.[1] Aerodrome Via Greek: ἀήρ ("air") δρόμος (" race course") which originated in Sanskrit: वाति (vā́ ti), “‘to blow’”) and द्राति (drāti), “‘to run’”). Afghanistan "Land of the Afghans"; from Arabic: Afġān ( )ناغفاvia Prakit: Avagānā (आभगन) which is derived from the Sanskrit tribal name Aśvaka (अश्वक) meaning "horseman", as the country was noted for its fine breed of horses; and the Persian suffix ـ ـ ـــ-stan meaning "land". This name was used in reference to the Kambojas in antiquity. Agni from Sanskrit अग्नन Agnih, which means "fire".[2] agnan from Sanksrit आगणन means lack of knowledge or ignorance, from root word gnan in Sanskrit which means knowledge or wisdom; Ahimsa from Sanskrit अद स िं ा ahimsā, which means "not-harmful".[3] Ambarella through Sinhalese: ඇඇඇඇඇඇඇඇ ultimately from Sanskrit: अम्बरे ल्ला, a kind of tree.[4] Amrita from Sanskrit अमि ृ म ् amrtam, nectar of everlasting life.[5] Aniline through German: Anilin, French: Aniline and Portuguese: Anil from Arabic لينلاal-nili, ultimately from Sanskrit नीली nili.[6] Annapurna from Sanskrit: अन्नपण ू ाा, consort of Shiva and an aspect of Devi.[7] Argentinum and Argentina via Latin: Argentum ("silver") and Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος (argēntos), gen. of ἀργήεις (argēeis), "white, shining" [8] and 'Αργεντινός (argentinos; "silvery") [9] which are all derived from Sanskrit अर्जन ा arjuna, meaning .....one who has the charm of silver . Arya Aryan from Sanskrit आया ārya.[10] from Latin Ariana, from Greek Ἀριά Aria, ultimately from Sanskrit आया Arya-s "noble, honorable".[11] Asana from Sanskrit आसन āsanam which means "seat", a term describing yoga postures.[12] Ashram ultimately from Sanskrit आश्रम āsramah, a religious hermitage.[13] Asura from Sanskrit असजर a-sura, which means "negation of sura [god]", i.e. someone who have demonish qualities or someone who is against God.[14] "Sura" in Sanskrit also means liquor / alcoholic drink. A-sura means the one who does not drink liquor. Atoll ބ through Maldivean: ލަތއ probably ultimately from Sanskrit अिंिला antala.[15] Aubergine from Catalan alberginera, via Arabic ( نا ْج ِنذانal-badinjan) and Persian ( ناجندابbadin-gan) ultimately from Sanskrit वातिगगम vātinganah.[16] Avatar from Sanskrit अविार avatarana, which means "descent".[17] Ayurveda from Sanskrit आयव ज ेि āyurvedah, which means "knowledge of life".[18] [edit] B A handcoloured engraving of Brahma. Bandana from Hindi बन्धन bandhnu, ultimately from Sanskrit बध्नाति badhnati, "binds".[19] Banyan from Sanskrit वाणणर् vanija, which means "a merchant".[20] Basmati through Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit वास vāsah.[21] Bahuvrihi from Sanskrit ब ज व्रीद bahuvrīhih, a composite word.[22] Beryl from Old French beryl, via Latin beryllus, Greek βήρυλλος and Prakrit वेलजररय (veruliya) ultimately from Sanskrit वैडूया vaidurya-, of Dravidian origin, maybe from the name of Belur.[23] Bhagavad-Gita from Sanskrit: भगवद्गीिा, which means "song of the sublime".[24] Bhagavata from Sanskrit: भगवान,् one loyal to Bhagavat.[25] Bhakti from Sanskrit भग्ति bhakti, which means "loyalty".[26] Bhang from Hindi भािंग bhang, which is from Sanskrit भङ्ग bhangah "hemp".[27] Bharata from Sanskrit भरि bhārata meaning "to be maintained".[28] Bidi through Hindi बीडी ultimately from Sanskrit ववतिकम vītikam.[29] Brahma from Sanskrit ब्रह्मा brahmā, which means "a prayer".[30] Brahman from Sanskrit ब्रह्मन ् brāhmana.[31] Brahmin from Sanskrit राह्मण brahmana-s, from brahman.[32] Brinjal from Persian ناجندابbadingān, probably from Sanskrit भण्टाकी vātingana.[33] Buddha from Sanskrit बजद्ध buddha, which means "awakened, enligtened", refers to Siddhartha Gautama, founder of Buddhism[34] Also refers to one who is enlightened in accordance with the teachings of Buddha or a likeness of Buddha[35] [edit] C A cheetah. Cambodia The country's former name is Kampuchea (Khmer: ඇඇඇඇඇඇඇඇඇඇඇඇඇඇඇඇඇඇඇඇඇ Preăh Réachéa Nachâk Kâmpŭchea; literally: "Kingdom of Cambodia") which is derived from Sanskrit: Kambujadesa (कम्बोर्िे श; land of Kambuja). Candle imported from Old English candel "lamp or lantern", whoch was imported from Latin "candela" and Ancient Greek κάνδαρος kandaros, “charcoal”, which originated in Sanskrit चन्द्र candrá, “shining.”[36] Candy from Old French sucre candi, via Arabic: يدنقqandi and Persian: دنقqand probably ultimately from Sanskrit खड् ज khanda "sugar", perhaps from Dravidian.[37] Carmine from French carmin, via Middle Latin from Arabic: زمرقqirmiz "crimson", which is from Sanskrit क्रिममगा krimiga.[38] Cash from Portuguese caixa, from Tamil காசு kAcu, which is from Sanskrit कर्ा karsha, a weight of gold or silver. This is the proper noun related with the miscellaneous coins of small value, common noun "cash" is not of Sanskrit origin.[39] Cashmere from Kashmir, the Himalayan region where this wool is from.[40] The name Kashmere is derived from Ka (का; "water") and shimir (मशममरर; "to desiccate"). Chador through Urdu and Persian رداچultimately from Sanskrit छत्रम ् chattram.[41] Chakra from Sanskrit चििं cakra, which means "a circle, a wheel".[42] Champac through Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit काम्पका campaka, an evergreen tree.[43] Cheetah from Hindi चचिा chita "a leopard", from Sanskrit चचराका chitraka, which means "speckled".[44] Chintz from Hindi छ िंट chint, which is from Sanskrit चचरस chitra-s "clear, bright".[45] Chit from Hindi चचट्ठ chitthi "a letter, note", which is from Sanskrit चचरस chitra-s "uniquely marked".[46] Chuddar through Urdu tirksnaS morf yletamitlu چادرछत्रम ् chattram.[47] Chukar via Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit चकोर cakorah.[48] Chukker from Hindi चतकर chakkar, from Sanskrit चि cakra, "a circle, a wheel".[49] Citipati from Sanskrit चचति पति citi-pati, which means "a funeral pyre lord".[50] Cot from Hindi ख़ि khat "a couch", which is from Sanskrit खट्वा khatva.[51] Cowrie from Hindi and Urdu kauri (कजरी; )بدتمک, which is from Sanskrit कपिा kaparda, probably related to Tamil.[52] Crimson from Old Spanish cremesin, via Middle Latin from Arabic زمرقqirmiz "a kermes", which is ultimately from Sanskrit कृममर् krmi-ja.[53] [edit] D Dahl through Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit िल dalah, meaning cotyledon of a pea pod, a type of Indian food, also refers to lentil in the US.[54] Das Datura from Sanskrit िासा daasa, a slave or servant.[55] through Latin and Hindi: धिूरा ultimately from Sanskrit धत्तरज dhattūrāh, a kind of flowering plant.[56] Deodar through Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit िे विारु devadāru, a kind of tree.[57] Deva, Diva from Sanskrit िे वी deva, which means "a god", akin to Latin deus, "god". Diva means day like in divakara, sun who makes the day.[58] Devi from Sanskrit िे वी devi, which means "a goddess".[59] Dharma from Pali धम्म dhamma and Sanskrit: धमा, which means "law, justice".[60] Dhoti through Hindi: धोिी ultimately from Sanskrit धन ज ोति dhūnoti, traditional garment of men's wear in [61] India. Dinghy from Hindi दिन्गी dingi "a tiny boat", probably from Sanskrit द्रोणम drona-m.[62] [edit] E Emerald from Latin smaragdus, via Greek: σμάραγδος ultimately from Semitic אזמרגדizmargad or from Sanskrit मरकन marakata, "emerald".[63][64] [edit] F Falafel from Arabic: الفالف, perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit वपप्पल pippalī.[65] [edit] G A ginger field Ganesh via Hindi: गणेश Gaŋeś ultimately from Sanskrit गणेश Gaŋeśa.[66] Ganja via Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit गािंर्ा gāñjyā, which means "of hemp".[67] Gaur Gavial Gayal Gharry Ghee via Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit गौर gaurah.[68] through French and Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit घिंतिक ghantikah, a kind of crocodile.[69] perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit गौ gauh via Bengali, a kind of animal.[70] perhaps finally from Sanskrit गिा gartah via Hindi: गाडी, a kind of vehicle.[71] [72] through Hindi: घी ultimately from Sanskrit: घि ृ िं ghritam. Ginger from Middle Latin gingiber via Latin giniger and Greek ζιγγίβερις zingiberis from Prakrit मसग्न्गभेर singabera, ultimately from Sanskrit स्र्ङवॆरम ् srngaveram, which means "body of a horn", perhaps a Sanskrit folk etymology, an ancient Dravidian etymology is probable.[73] Gnan means knowledge perhaps may explain why the word "knowledge" may have been pronounced with a "K" at one time. Guar Gunny Gupta Gurkha Guru through Hindi गार ultimately from Sanskrit गॊपमल gopālī, an annual legume.[74] via Hindi गोनी ultimately from Sanskrit गोणी goni "sack".[75] from Sanskrit गजप्िा goptri, the name of a Hindu dynasty.[76] via Nepalese गोखाा ultimately from Sanskrit गोरतसा goraksah, "a cowherd".[77] via Hindi गजरु ultimately from Sanskrit गजरु guru-s, which means "a teacher".[78] [edit] H Hanuman through Hindi from Sanskrit Hanuman ( नम ज ान ्), a kind of small monkey, Hindu mythological [79] God. Hare Krishna from Sanskrit Hare ( रर) and Krishna (कृष्ण).[80] Himalaya from Sanskrit द मालय himalayah, which means "place of snow".[81] Hindi from Hindi द ि िं Hind, via Persian: ودنحNilou; Hindu "Sind" ultimately from Sanskrit मसन्धज sindhu, which means "a river".[82] Hindu via Persian: ودنحNilou; Hindu ultimately from Sanskrit मसन्धज sindhu, which means "a river".[83] [edit] I Indra Sanskrit: इन्द्र; a prominent Vedic god, in charge of rain and thunder. indra ia a god of rain and thunder like seyus . He is the leader of all gods like god of air (वायज िे व ् vaayu dev), water (वरुण िे व ् varuna dev), fire (अग्नन िे व ् agni dev) and lives in devalookam (swargam, heaven).[84] [edit] J Jackal from Turkish çakal, from Persian ش غالshaghal, from Middle Indic shagal, ultimately from [85] Sanskrit सग ृ ाल srgalah "the howler". Jaggery via Portuguese perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit शकारा sarkara.[86] Jain or Jaina through Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit र्ैन jaina, which means "concerning the saints".[87] Jungle through Hindi र्िंगल jangal "a desert, forest" ultimately from Sanskrit र्िंगल jangala-s, which means "arid".[88] Juggernaut through Hindi र्गन्नाथ jagannath ultimately from Sanskrit र्गन्नाथ jagat-natha-s, which means "lord of the world".[89] Jute via Bengali পাট jhuto ultimately from Sanskrit र्जिास juta-s, which means "twisted hair".[90] [edit] K Kali from Sanskrit काली kali.[91] Kama Sutra from Sanskrit कामसूर Kāma Sutra, which means kāma "desire" and sutra.[92] Karma from Sanskrit कमा karman, which means "work, fate".[93] Kedgeree probably ultimately from Sanskrit सार krśarah.[94] Kermes perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit: कृममर् via French: Kermès and Arabic: زمرق.[95] Kos through Hindi कोस kos ultimately from Sanskrit रोस krosah, which means "a call, a shout".[96] Krait through Hindi probably ultimately from Sanskrit: काराइट, a kind of snake.[97] Krishna from Sanskrit कृष्ण krshnah, which means "black one", an avatar of Vishnu.[98] Krishna is the Supreme Personality of Godhead from whom all other avataras emanate.[99] Khaki Hindi ख़ाकी meaning 'of the dust' [edit] L Lac through Urdu, Persian and Hindi ( ــ ــUrdu); ( ــ ـPersian); लाख (Hindi) lakh from Prakrit लतख lakkha, ultimately from Sanskrit लक्षिं laksha.[100] Lacquer through French: Laque and Portuguese: Laca from Arabic كلlakk, via Prakrit ultimately from Sanskrit लक्षिं laksha.[101] Langur through Hindi probably ultimately from Sanskrit लिंगजलम langūlam.[102] Lilac via Arabic كللlilak from Persian کلینnilak meaning "bluish", ultimately from Sanskrit नील nila, which means "dark blue".[103] Loot ultimately from Sanskrit लण् ज टा lota-m through Hindi, which means "a booty, stolen thing".[104] [edit] M Mahabharata from Sanskrit म ाभारििं Mahābhāratam, great story of the Bhāratas.[105] Maharajah through Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit म ा रार्न ् maha-rājān, which means "a great king".[106] Maharani through Hindi finally from Sanskrit म ा रानी mahārājnī, which means "consort of a maharajah".[107] Maharishi from Sanskrit म वर्ा maha-rishi, which means "a great sage".[108] Mahatma from Sanskrit म ात्मा mahatman, which means "a great breath, soul".[109] Mahayana from Sanskrit म ायान maha-yana, which means "a great vehicle".[110] Mahout via Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit म मरह् mahāmātrah.[111] Mandala from Sanskrit मण्डल mandala, which means "a disc, circle".[112] Mandarin via Portuguese mandarim, Dutch mandorijn, Malay mantri, and Hindi मिंरी mantri "a councillor" ultimately from Sanskrit मग्न्रन ् mantri, which means "an advisor".[113] Mantra from Sanskrit मन्र mantra-s which means "a holy message or text".[114] Maratha from Sanskrit म ाराष्र Maharastra, which means "a great country".[115] Marut from Sanskrit: मरुि, a group of storm gods, sons of Rudra.[116] Maya from Sanskrit माया māyā, a religious term related with illusion.[117] Meerkat from Dutch meerkat, or probably through Hindi मरकि markat ultimately from Sanskrit मकाट markata meaning "an ape".[118] Mitra from Sanskrit ममर Mitrah, which means "a friend".[119] Moksha from Sanskrit मोक्ष moksha, liberation from the cycle of death and rebirth.[120] Mouse from Sanskrit मजसक musaka, meaning mouse.[105] Motor from Sanskrit मरुि दठरुति maruta thiruti, to turn around . Mugger via Hindi and Urdu ultimately from Sanskrit मकर makara ("sea creature"), like a crocodile, which attacks stealthily.[121] Mung bean through Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit मजनिह् mudgah, a kind of bean.[122] Musk via Middle English Muske, Middle French Musc, Late Latin Muscus and Late Greek μόσχος moskhos from Persian کشومmushk, ultimately from Sanskrit मजस्कस ् muska-s meaning "a testicle", from a diminutive of मजस mus ("mouse").[123][124][125] Mynah through Hindi मैना maina ultimately from Sanskrit मिन madana-s, which means "love".[126] [edit] N Nainsook through Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit नयनम्सजख ् nayanam-sukh, a kind of fabric.[127] Name route unknown ultimately from Sanskrit नामन ् nama, which means "a word used to call someone".[128] Namaste through Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit नमस्िे namas-te, which means "I bow to you".[128] Nard through Old French and Latin from Greek νάρδος nardos, perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit णलिम ् naladam.[129] Narghile through French and Persian هليگرانnārghīleh ultimately from Sanskrit नाररकेला nārikelah.[130] Nark probably from Romany nak "a nose", via Hindi नक् nak ultimately from Sanskrit नि nakra.[131] Neem through Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit तनम्बह् nimbah, a kind of tree.[132] New through latin nova ultimately from Sanskrit नव nava, something not old.[132] Nilgai through Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit तनलगौह् nīla-gauh, an ox-like animal.[133] Nirvana from Sanskrit तनवााण nirvana-s which means "extinction, blowing out".[134] [edit] O Opal through Latin from Greek, probably ultimately from Sanskrit औपल upalah.[135] Orange through Old French orenge, Middle Latin orenge and Italian arancia from Arabic جنرانnaranj, via Persian گنرانnarang and Sanskrit नारङ्ग naranga-s meaning "an orange tree", ultimately from Tamil அரு aru and அஞு anju meaning six and five, referring to the eleven segments of the orange's fruit.[136] [edit] R Raga Raita Raj Rajah via Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit राग rāgah, melodic modes used in Indian classical music.[137] ultimately from Sanskrit via Hindi रायिा rāytā, a south Asian condiment and side dish made of yogurt and vegetables.[138] through Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit रार्ा rājā, which means "a king". Raj means kingdom or domain of a ruler.[139] through Hindi from Sanskrit रार्न ् rājān, which means "a king".[140] Rama from Sanskrit राम Ramah, which means "pretty".[141] Ramayana from Sanskrit रामायण Rāmāyanam, which means "the gait of Rama".[142] Ramtil through Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit रमतिलह् rāmatilah, which means "a dark sesame".[143] Rani through Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit रानी rājnī, consort of a rajah.[144] Rice via Old French and Italian from Latin oriza, which is from Greek ὄρυζα oryza, through an IndoIranian tongue finally from Sanskrit रीद vrihi-s "rice", Tamil origin is also possible.[145] Tamil word is அரிசி "arisi".[citation needed] Rigveda from Sanskrit ऋनवेि rigveda, which means "knowledge of praise".[146] Rudra from Sanskrit: रुद्र, father of the storm gods.[147] Rook From Persian خرrokh; ultimately from रि rath "chariot." Rupee through Hindi रुपया rupiyā ultimately from Sanskrit रूप्यकम ् rūpyakam, an Indian silver coin.[148] Rye via Romani from Sanskrit रार्ा rājā, rye is used to define a gypsy person.[149] [edit] S Saccharovia Latin Saccharon and Greek σάκχαρα from Pali सतखर sakkharā, ultimately from Sanskrit शकारा sarkarā.[150] Sadhu ultimately from Sanskrit साधज sādhu.[151] Samadhi from Sanskrit समाचध samadhi, which means "putting together".[152] Sambal through Malay and Tamil ultimately from Sanskrit सम्बार sambhārei.[153] Sambar through Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit सिंभारह् śambarah, a kind of Asian deer.[154] Samsara from Sanskrit सिंसार samsAra, which means "passing through".[155] Sandal via Old French and Arabic ultimately from Sanskrit चन्िनम ् candanam, this is the word sandalwood, not related to sandals which is a type of footwear.[156] Sandhi ultimately from Sanskrit सिंचध samdhih, a wide variety of phonological processes.[157] Sangha from Sanskrit सिंघ saṅgha, a community of Buddhist monks and nuns.[158] Sanskrit from Sanskrit सिंस्कृिम ् samskrtam "put together, well-formed".[159] Sapphire via Latin sapphirus and Greek σάπφειρος sappheiros from a Semitic tongue (c.f. Hebrew: ריפס sapir), but probably finally from Sanskrit शतनविय sanipriya.[160] Sarasvati from Sanskrit सरस्विी Sarasvati, name of a holy stream.[161] Sari through Hindi साडी sari and Prakrit सदि sadi, finally from Sanskrit र्ाटी sati "garment".[162] Satyagraha from Sanskrit सत्याग्र satyagraha, which means "insisting on truth".[163] Sattva from Sanskrit सत्त्व sattvah, which means "truth".[164] Shaman through Russian шама́н from Tungus shaman, perhaps from Chinese 萨满 sha men, via Prakrit समन finally from Sanskrit श्रमण sramana-s "a Buddhist monk".[165] Shampoo via Hindi चााँपो champo probably from Sanskrit चााँपना capayati, which means "kneads".[166] Shawl from Persian لاشshal, finally from Sanskrit सत्ल ् satI, which means "a strip of cloth".[167] Shiva or Siva through Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit मशव Sivah, which means "gracious".[168] Siddha from Sanskrit मसद्ध siddhah, which means "achieved, accomplished".[169] Sikh through Hindi मसख sikh "a disciple", ultimately from Sanskrit मशतशिे siksati which means "studies".[170] Singh via Hindi Singh finally from Sanskrit मसिं simhah which means "a lion".[171] Singapore via Malay ultimately from Sanskrit मसिंगापोर Simhapuram, literally "the lion city".[172] Sinhala from Sanskrit मसिं ल Simhala which means "Sri Lanka".[173] Sinhalese from Sanskrit मसिं ल simhala which means "of lions".[174] Sri Lanka from Sanskrit: री लिंका which means "venerable island." Smart from Sanskrit समथाह् samarthah, which means "one who is very talented or better 'smart', " donated by Manish, kerala.[175] Stupa from Sanskrit स्िप ू stūpah which means "crown of the head".[176] Son from Sanskrit सोनजह् soonuh, the meaning is "sun and son" (interestingly soonuh means both 'son' and 'sun') donated by Manish, kerala.[177] Sun from Sanskrit सोनजह् soonuh, the meaning is "son and sun" (interestingly soonuh means both 'son' and 'sun') donated by Manish, kerala.[177] Stupa from Sanskrit स्िूप stūpah which means "crown of the head".[178] Sudra from Sanskrit शद्र ू śūdrah.[179] Sugar through Middle Latin succarum, Arabic: ركسsukkar and Persian: رکشshakar ultimately from Sanskrit शकारा sharkara which means "sugar".[180] Sulfur from Latin sulfur, perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit गन्धक sulvari.[181][182][183] Sunn via Hindi: सजन्न ultimately from Sanskrit: सन sāna, a kind of Asian plant.[184] Sutra from Sanskrit सूर sutram which means "a rule".[185] Suttee through Hindi finally from Sanskrit सिी sati, which means "an honorable woman".[186] Swami through Hindi स्वामी swami ultimately from Sanskrit svami, which means "a master".[187] Swastika from Sanskrit स्वग्स्िक svastika, which means "one associated with well-being, a lucky charm".[188] [edit] T Taka via Bengali: টাকা from Sanskrit िन्कह् tankah.[189] Talipot through Hindi from Sanskrit tālapattram, a kind of tree.[190] Tendu via Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit िालपत्रम ् tainduka.[191] Tantra from Sanskrit िन्र tantram, which means "weave".[192] Teapoy via Hindi तिपाई tipāi and Urdu ت پائ يtipāʼī,which originated as a Sanskrit compound: त्रर (trí, “three”) and पाि (pā́ da, “foot”). Thug Til Toddy Tola Toon Tope Tussah Tutty through Marathi and Hindi ठग thag probably ultimately from Sanskrit स्थग sthaga, which means "a scoundrel".[193] from Sanskrit तिल tilah, a kind of plant.[194] through Hindi िरी tari ultimately from Sanskrit िल tala-s, a Dravidian origin is also probable.[195] via Hindi: िोला ultimately from Sanskrit िजला tulā, a traditional Indian unit of mass.[196] through Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit िन् ज नह् tunnah, a kind of tree.[197] through Hindi probably from Prakrit थप ज ो thūpo, finally from Sanskrit स्िूप stūpah.[198] through Hindi finally from Sanskrit िसरम ् tasaram, a large moth.[199] through Old French, Arabic and Persian ultimately from Sanskrit िजत्थम ् tuttham, a Dravidian origin is also probable.[200] [edit] V Varuna Veda from Sanskrit वरुण varunah, the lord of oceans.[201] from Sanskrit वेि veda, which means "knowledge, holy book".[202] Vimana from Sanskrit ववमान vimana meaning plane, also referred to the top of the temple tower, sanctum santorum.[203] Vina ultimately from Sanskrit through Hindi (वीणा), a kind of instrument.[204] Vishnu from Sanskrit ववष्णज Vishnu, a chief Hindu deity.[205] Vritra वि ृ ्; "the enveloper" a snake-demon and the leader of the Danavas.[206] Veranda A verandah or veranda is a roofed opened gallery or porch वरण्डः.[207] [edit] W Wagon From Sanskrit वा न 'vAhan' meaning a vehicle Wanderoo through Sinhalese: ඇඇඇඇඇඇඇ finally from Sanskrit वानर vānarah, a kind of monkey.[208] Wat via Thai: วัด ultimately from Sanskrit वाि vātah.[209] [edit] Y Yamantaka From Sanskrit: Sanskrit: यमान्िक Yamāntaka which means "Yama's terminator." Yoga through Hindi ultimately from Sanskrit योग yoga-s, which means "yoke, union".[210] Yogi through Hindi योगी yogi from Sanskrit योग yoga, one who practices yoga or ascetic.[211] Yeti यचथ yathih, which means "great sage, holyman" (this might have come to use as one might have mistaken a sage for the real Yeti) donated by Manish, kerala.[212] [edit] Z Zen through Japanese 禅 and Chinese 禪 Chán ultimately from Pali झन jhāna and Sanskrit ध्यान dhyana, which means "a meditation".[213] This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it. [edit] See also Indian English List of Hindu deities Lists of English words of international origin [edit] External links FreeDictionary.com - Sanskrit [edit] References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. ^ Dictionary.com - Aditya ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Agni ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Ahimsa ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Ambarella ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Amrita ^ Merriam-Webster Online - Aniline ^ Dictionary.com - Annapurna ^ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940). A Greek-English Lexicon. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0198642261. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi- bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2314776. Retrieved 2009-0901. 9. ^ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940). A Greek-English Lexicon. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0198642261. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgibin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2314768. Retrieved 2009-0901. 10. ^ Merriam-Webster Online - Arya 11. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Aryan". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Aryan. 12. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Asana 13. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Ashram 14. ^ Dictionary.com - Asura 15. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Atoll 16. ^ Harper, Douglas. "aubergine". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=aubergine. 17. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Avatar". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Avatar. 18. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Ayurveda 19. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Bandana". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Bandana. 20. ^ Harper, Douglas. "banyan". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=banyan. 21. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Basmati rice 22. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Bahuvrihi 23. ^ Harper, Douglas. "beryl". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=beryl. 24. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Bhagavad-Gita". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Bhagavad-Gita. 25. ^ Merriam-Webster Online - Bhagavata 26. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Bhakti 27. ^ Harper, Douglas. "bhang". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=bhang. 28. ^ Merriam-Webster Online - Bharata 29. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Bidi 30. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Brahma 31. ^ Dictionary.com - Brahman 32. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Brahmin". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Brahmin. 33. ^ Merriam-Webster Online - Brinjal 34. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Buddha 35. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Buddha 36. ^ http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=candle 37. ^ Harper, Douglas. "candy". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=candy. 38. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Carmine". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Carmine. 39. ^ Merriam-Webster Online - Cash, see definition 4 40. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Cashmere". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Cashmere. 41. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Chador 42. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Chakra". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Chakra. 43. ^ Merriam-Webster Online - Champac 44. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Cheetah". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Cheetah. 45. ^ Harper, Douglas. "chintz". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=chintz. 46. ^ Harper, Douglas. "chit". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=chit. 47. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Chuddar 48. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Chukar 49. ^ Harper, Douglas. "chukker". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=chukker. 50. ^ Dinosauria.com - Citipati 51. ^ Harper, Douglas. "cot". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=cot. 52. ^ Harper, Douglas. "cowrie". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=cowrie. 53. ^ Harper, Douglas. "crimson". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=crimson. 54. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Dahl 55. ^ Merriam-Webster Unabridged - Das 56. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Datura 57. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Deodar 58. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Deva". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Deva. 59. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Devi 60. ^ Harper, Douglas. "dharma". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=dharma. 61. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Dhoti 62. ^ Harper, Douglas. "dinghy". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=dinghy. 63. ^ Dictionary.com - Emerald 64. ^ Jewish Daily Forward - Emerald 65. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Falafel 66. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Ganesh 67. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Ganja 68. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Gaur 69. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Gavial 70. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Gayal 71. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Gharry 72. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Ghee 73. ^ Harper, Douglas. "ginger". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=ginger. 74. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Guar 75. ^ Harper, Douglas. "gunny". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=gunny. 76. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Gupta 77. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Gurkha 78. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Guru". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Guru. 79. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Hanuman 80. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Hare Krishna 81. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Himalaya". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Himalaya. 82. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Hindi 83. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Hindu". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Hindu. 84. ^ Dictionary.com - Indra 85. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Jackal". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Jackal. 86. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Jaggery 87. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Jain 88. ^ Harper, Douglas. "jungle". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=jungle. 89. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Juggernaut". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Juggernaut. 90. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Jute". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Jute. 91. ^ Merriam-Webster Online - Kali 92. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Kama Sutra". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Kama+Sutra. 93. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Karma". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Karma. 94. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Kedgeree 95. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Kermes 96. ^ Harper, Douglas. "kos". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=kos. 97. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Krait 98. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Krishna". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Krishna. 99. ^ Bhagavata Purana 1.3.28: (ete camsa-kalah pumsah / krsnas tu bhagavan svayam / indrarivyakulam lokam / mrdayanti yuge yuge) 100. ^ Harper, Douglas. "lac". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=lac. 101. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Lacquer 102. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Langur 103. ^ Merriam-Webster Online - Lilac 104. ^ Harper, Douglas. "loot". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=loot. 105. ^ a b American Heritage Dictionary - Mahabharata 106. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Maharajah". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Maharajah. 107. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Maharani 108. ^ Harper, Douglas. "maharishi". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=maharishi. 109. ^ Harper, Douglas. "mahatma". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=mahatma. 110. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Mahayana". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Mahayana. 111. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Mahout 112. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Mandala". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Mandala. 113. ^ Harper, Douglas. "mandarin". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=mandarin. 114. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Mantra". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Mantra. 115. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Maratha". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Maratha. 116. ^ Dictionary.com - Marut 117. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Maya 118. ^ Harper, Douglas. "meerkat". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=meerkat. 119. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Mitra 120. ^ Dictionary.com - Moksha 121. ^ Merriam-Webster Online - Mugger 122. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Mung bean 123. ^ Harper, Douglas. "musk". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=musk. 124. ^ "Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary: musk". Merriam-Webster. http://www.mw.com/dictionary/musk. Retrieved 2007-04-07. 125. ^ Chantraine, Pierre (1990). Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque. Klincksieck. pp. 715. ISBN 2-252-03277-4. 126. ^ Harper, Douglas. "mynah". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=mynah. 127. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Nainsook 128. ^ a b Harper, Douglas. "Namaste". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Namaste. 129. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Nard 130. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Narghile 131. ^ Harper, Douglas. "nark". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=nark. 132. ^ a b American Heritage Dictionary - Neem 133. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Nilgai 134. ^ Harper, Douglas. "nirvana". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=nirvana. 135. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Opal 136. ^ Harper, Douglas. "orange". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=orange. 137. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Raga 138. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Raita 139. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Raj 140. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Rajah". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Rajah. 141. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Rama". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Rama. 142. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Ramayana 143. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Ramtil 144. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Rani 145. ^ Harper, Douglas. "rice". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=rice. 146. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Rig veda". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Rig+veda. 147. ^ Dictionary.com - Rudra 148. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Rupee 149. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Rye 150. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Saccharo151. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Sadhu 152. ^ Harper, Douglas. "samadhi". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=samadhi. 153. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Sambal 154. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Sambar 155. ^ Merriam-Webster Online - Samsara 156. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Sandal 157. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Sandhi 158. ^ Dictionary.com - Sangha 159. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Sanskrit". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Sanskrit. 160. ^ Harper, Douglas. "sapphire". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=sapphire. 161. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Sarasvati 162. ^ Merriam-Webster Online - Sari 163. ^ Harper, Douglas. "satyagraha". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=satyagraha. 164. ^ Harper, Douglas. "sattva". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=sattva. 165. ^ Merriam-Webster Online - Shaman 166. ^ Harper, Douglas. "shampoo". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=shampoo. 167. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Shawl 168. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Siva". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Siva. 169. ^ Harper, Douglas. "siddha". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=siddha. 170. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Sikh". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Sikh. 171. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Singh". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Singh. 172. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Singapore". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Singapore. 173. ^ Merriam-Webster Online - Sinhala 174. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Sinhalese". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Sinhalese. 175. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Smart". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Smart. 176. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Stupa 177. ^ a b Harper, Douglas. "son". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=son. 178. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Stupa 179. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Sudra 180. ^ Harper, Douglas. "sugar". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=sugar. 181. ^ The Concise Dictionary of English Etymology - Sulfur 182. ^ The Origin of Medical Terms - Sulphur 183. ^ Magill's Survey of Science - Sulfur 184. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Sunn 185. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Sutra". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Sutra. 186. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Suttee". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Suttee. 187. ^ Harper, Douglas. "swami". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=swami. 188. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Swastika". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Swastika. 189. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Taka 190. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Talipot 191. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Tendu 192. ^ Harper, Douglas. "tantra". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=tantra. 193. ^ Harper, Douglas. "thug". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=thug. 194. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Til 195. ^ Harper, Douglas. "toddy". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=toddy. 196. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Tola 197. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Toon 198. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Tope 199. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Tussah 200. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Tutty 201. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Varuna 202. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Veda". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Veda. 203. ^ Dictionary.com - Vimana 204. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Vina 205. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Vishnu". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Vishnu. 206. ^ Dictionary.com - Vritra 207. ^ Veranda 208. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Wanderoo 209. ^ American Heritage Dictionary - Wat 210. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Yoga". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Yoga. 211. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Yogi". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Yogi. 212. ^ Harper, Douglas. "yeti". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=yeti. 213. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Zen". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Zen. Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Sanskrit_origin"