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TIMELINE / Before 1800 to 1930
Date
Country
Theme
1516 - 1916
Jordan
Travelling
Between 1516 and the mid-19th century the main interest of the Ottoman authorities in the territories of
modern Jordan was to maintain the al-shami pilgrimage route of the holy sanctuaries of Islam in Mecca
and Medina. To ensure the safety of the pilgrim caravans good relations were maintained with the local
Bedouin tribes. An annual payment was paid by the state (khuwwa or surra) to their chiefs to facilitate
the passage of the pilgrims or simply to leave them alone.
1516 - 1916
Jordan
Travelling
The region enjoyed relative stability due to being the route of the hajj sharif (pilgrimage) caravans to
Mecca. Sultans and governors took great care of the caravans. Khans, water installations and
fortifications were built and maintained along the route and military patrols were formed to protect it.
1700
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Political Context
In the early 1700s, the (Al-Qasimi) Qawasim confederation migrates to the coast of the Arab Gulf from
the Persian littoral. Here, they establish their main base in Julfar (later Ras al-Khaimah), soon extending
their sway all along the lower Gulf, across areas of the east coast and towns on the Persian littoral.
1700 - 1750s
Germany
Cities And Urban Spaces
The newly built Palace of Schwetzingen (built on the site of a former palace that actually dates back to
1350) flourishes under the Palatine Prince Elector Karl Theodor. Today a heritage site of great cultural
significance, it contains some 100 sculptures and is known for its Türkischer Garten, a garden in the
Turkish style with a mosque (constructed 1779–91 and the earliest mosque-style and largest structure of
its kind in any German garden), designed by French architect Nicolas de Pigage and with “Oriental”
details that are for decorative purposes only.
1700 - 1750s
Germany
Fine And Applied Arts
"Palace Schwetzingen" is bulit and flourised under the Palatine Prince Elector Carl Theodor. The baroque
castle complex includes more than 100 sculptures and a "Türkischer Garten" ("Turkish Garden") with a
mosque, biult from 1779 to 1791, that makes it the earliest mosque- style in Germany and the largest
structure of its kind in a german garden. It was designed by Nicolas de Pigage. However the oriental
details are not for religious but for decorative purposes.
During the 18th and 19th
centuries
Germany
Travelling
Travellers from Europe approached the notion of the Near East with dreams of a “holy world” and
“treasuries of wisdom”. The European desire for the “Orient” arose partly as a result of the
Enlightenment, which since the 1800s had already changed the public psyche, filtering down from the
rationalism of intellectuals to the scientification of the public. In addition, the many wars of the period,
especially the Napoleonic Wars, produced in the people nostalgia; a desire for distance, the unknown,
and the halcyon days of the past. Romantic-era authors and philosophers, much disturbed by these very
topics (e.g. Friedrich Schlegel), thus attempted to escape into something magical – the “Orient” seemed
to them, and their readers, an ideal imaginary world.
1745 - 1747
Germany
Cities And Urban Spaces
Prussian King Friedrick II commissions G. W. von Knobelsdorff to build Sanssouci Palace in Potsdam.
1765 - 1800
Saudi Arabia
Political Context
In 1765 Imam Muhammad bin Saud establishes the First Saudi State in Arabia, starting with the Najd
region, and making its capital the city of Dir‘iyya.
1769 - 1785
Germany
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The era of Sturm und Drang (Storm and Stress) in literature (i.e. the works of Goethe, Schiller, Hölderlin
and Herder) is characterised by lyricism, fantasy, freedom, juvenility and idealism, which is felt most
keenly in the dramatic writing of the period.
1770 - 1830
Germany
Fine And Applied Arts
The painting by Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein, Goethe in der Campagna (1786/87), exemplifies
Classicism in art at this time.
1772 - 1807
Germany
Cities And Urban Spaces
Karl Eugen, Duke of Wittenberg, built three important palaces: one in the centre of Stuttgart, Neues
Schloss (1746–1807); Schloss Solitude (1763–9); and Schloss Hohenheim (1772–93).
1777 - 1810
Portugal
Fine And Applied Arts
Under Queen Maria I (1734–1816) and King João VI (1767–1826) a new neoclassical decorative
grammar replaces the dominant rococo style. Besides French and English influences, the main features of
the furniture are the carving of classical inspiration and the inlay work using various woods, creating both
geometrical and floral compositions.
Around 1800
Germany
Travelling
The wealthiest among the bourgeoisie begin to undertake more exploratory and scientific journeys to
“discover” the rest of the world.
1782 - 1813
Tunisia
Reforms And Social Changes
The reign of Hammuda Pasha Bey, known as the “Founder” of modern Tunisia. He made possible the
renovation of the city walls of Tunis and the restoration of its fortifications, and undertook similar
projects in cities such as Bizerte and Le Kef.
1782 - 1813
Tunisia
Political Context
During the reign of Hammuda Pasha Bey, known as the “Founder” of modern Tunisia, the Regency of
Tunis enjoys a thriving economy and an overall sense of security.
1786
United Kingdom
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Scotland’s most famous poet Robert Burns (b. Alloway, Scotland 1759; d. Dumfries, Scotland 1796) is
set to immigrate to the West Indies when a collection of his poems, chiefly in the Scottish dialect, is
published in the county town of Kilmarnock in 1786. The publication launches Burns’ career.
1786 - 1832
Germany
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Classical era in literature (i.e. the work of Goethe, Schiller, Wieland and Herder) is characterised by a
will to preserve beauty, maintain goodness in order to gain harmony, and sees nature as an entity. The
centre for this movement in literature is the city of Weimar.
1787
Spain
Rediscovering The Past
Antigüedades Árabes de España published by Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando – it marks
the beginning of the rediscovery of the Arab past.
1789 - 1791
Germany
Travelling
The Brandenburg Gate is built, today it a famous landmark of German reunification.
1790 - 1800
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Political Context
Between around 1790 and the early 1800s, threatened by increasing British inroads into traditional Gulf
economies and politics, and supported by the Persians and Omanis, the Qawasim attack British vessels to
defend their economic empire in the Lower Gulf.
About 1790 - About 1850
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Romantic movement develops at the beginning of the 19th century under the influence of writers
such as François-René de Chateaubriand. The movement, inspired by imagination, individualism, a taste
for the outrageous, and exoticism, is marked by the poetry of Alphonse de Lamartine and Victor Hugo
and then extends to the theatre with Hugo’s masterpiece Battle of Hernani, and then to literature. Hugo
was the uncontested leader of this literary movement. Music and dance were both influenced by
Romanticism; in choreography and in costume design (the tutu and points) the feminine was
accentuated.
About 1790 - About 1850
France
Fine And Applied Arts
As in literature, painting sees a similar confrontation between Neoclassicism (e.g. the work of Ingres)
and Romanticism, the latter also influencing sculpture. Academicism endured throughout the 19th
century (i.e. Bouguereau, Gérôme and Cabanel).
1790 - 1840
Germany
Fine And Applied Arts
The painting by Caspar David Friedrich, Der Wanderer über dem Nebelmeer (1818), exemplifies
Romanticism in art at this time.
Around 1800
Germany
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
"Disire for the orient" arises because of the breakovers around 1800, as the Enlightenment already had
changed peoples life to a more rationalistic way of thinking and the scientification of the public. Also the
sumless wars, especially the Napoleonic Wars, produced nostalgia and desire for the distance, the
unknown, the paradise... Authors and philosophers from the era of romanticism bothered this topics (e.g.
Friedrich Schlegel) and they tried to escape into something magical- the orient seemed to be a imaginary
world.
1795 - 1848
Germany
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The era of Romanticism or Blaue Blume in literature (i.e. the works of Tieck, von Kleist, Hebel, Hoffmann,
the Brothers Grimm and von Eichendorff) is characterised by the desire for far-away places, and imbued
with irony, passion, nocturnal mystery and mythical creatures.
1796
Egypt
Cities And Urban Spaces
The residence, Bayt al-Suhaymi is built.
1797
Austria
Political Context
Austria and France conclude the Treaty of Campo Formio on 17 October. Austria then cedes to Belgium
and Lombardy. To compensate, it gains the eastern part of the Venetian Republic up to the Adige,
including Venice, Istria and Dalmatia.
1800s
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Cities And Urban Spaces
In around 1800, the Sharjah town is estimated to have around 2,000 to 3,000 inhabitants.
Early 1800s
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Economy And Trade
The Qawasim possess a fleet of over 700 long-distance trading vessels, venturing all over the Gulf as
well as in India and East Africa.
1800 - 1814
Italy
Cities And Urban Spaces
In the Napoleonic age, monumental architecture is intended to celebrate the glory of the new regime. An
example of that is the Foro Bonaparte, in the area around the Sforza’s Castle in Milan (a project by
Giovanni Antonio Antolini).
1800s - 1850s
Italy
Travelling
The “Grand Tour” falls out of vogue; it used to be a period of educational travel, popular among the
European aristocrats in the 17th and 18th centuries. Its primary destination was Italy. In the second half
of the 19th century, vanguard artists no longer looked at Roman antiquities and Renaissance for
inspiration.
1800 - 1803
Saudi Arabia
Political Context
Most parts of Arabia become part of the new Saudi State. In 1803, The two holy cities of Mecca (Makkah)
and Medina (Madinah), along with the rest of the Hijaz region, join the Saudi State.
1800
United Kingdom
Political Context
The Kingdom of Great Britain comes into being under the Treaty of Union of the kingdoms of England
(which then included Wales) and Scotland on 1 May 1707. It lasts, controlled under a single parliament
and government based at Westminster, up until 31 December 1800.
Beginning of 19th century
Germany
Cities And Urban Spaces
Garden cities – planned urbanisation to overcome the housing crises in growing cities –come into vogue.
Examples include Margarethenhöhe in Essen, Dresden-Hellerau and Dresden-Briesnitz.
1800s - 1900s
Germany
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The era marks the genesis of some of the world’s most popular classical compositions, for example: in
1841 Robert Schumann composes Frühlingssinfonie (Spring Symphony) and in 1859 Johannes Brahms
finished the concerto Klavierkonzert Nr.1d-Moll op.15 (Piano Concerto No. 1 in D minor, Op.15). In 1889
Gustav Mahler’s 1. Sinfonie D-Dur (Symphony No. 1 in D major) is premiered; followed in 1905 by his
Kindertotenlieder (Songs on the Death of Children).
1800 - 1900
Lebanon
Cities And Urban Spaces
Some features of 19th-century architecture in Lebanon have their origins in the era of Fakhr al-Din II. He
had built khans and caravanserais to encourage trade and he introduced the red-tile technique, which
became a typical element in Lebanese architecture. The mashrabiyya (wooden screens), used in
buildings of Fakhr al-Din’s era, are still used in 19th-century Lebanese architecture.
1801
Egypt
Migrations
Mehmed Hüsrev Pasha commands 6,000 Turkish troops to assist the British in expelling the French from
Rashid. For this he is assigned Governor of Egypt.
1801
United Kingdom
Political Context
The Irish Rebellion of 1798, which was intended to put an end to what Irish nationalists perceived as the
subordination and dependency of Ireland on the British crown, instead contributes to the Irish
parliament’s vote to join the union between the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. On 1 January
1801, Britain, Scotland and Ireland sign the Act of Union and merge, to form the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Ireland.
19th century
France
Fine And Applied Arts
The arts experience rapid growth with the appearance of new techniques and the emergence of
photography and cinema. The female sculptor Camille Claudel was part of this artistic boom. Cultural
exchanges with other countries, for example at the International Exhibitions, were extremely fruitful.
19th century
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Dance (i.e. the waltz and quadrille), street song and cabaret (i.e. the sentimental and parody) and
operetta all caught the popular imagination. Popular novels (i.e. those by Dumas, Sue, du Terrail)
enjoyed huge success too, due to serialisation. The fashion world was influenced by publications of
specialist journals and department stores where different fashions mark each period (i.e. the crinoline,
the corset and millinery fashions).
19th century
Germany
Fine And Applied Arts
The so-called Moorish style recalls the Islamic art of Spain and North Africa between the 12th and 15th
centuries, which it is said reached its zenith in the Alhambra. The style became fashionable in the 19th
century for several reasons, but not least that technical progress and 19th-century industrialisation made
a change in architectural styles both desirable and possible. As communications became easier and faster
and people were exposed to other cultures, different styles and their functions were fused together in
architecture, often to display their patron’s affluence as travel and education were still expensive. For
example, the Dampfmaschinenhaus (the Steam Pump House) in Potsdam (1841–3) was designed by
Ludwig Persius to resemble a mosque and the Moorish Villa (Wilhelma Park) in Stuttgart (1846) was
probably built by Karl Ludwig van Zanth in the Moorish style for King Wilhelm I.
From 19th century onward
Germany
Migrations
Around 5 million Germans migrate to the USA to meet the need for manpower there, thanks to
industrialisation, especially from the Ruhr region.
1802
United Kingdom
Rediscovering The Past
The Treaty of Paris is signed. Following defeat by Anglo-Ottoman forces, France surrenders to Britain the
Egyptian antiquities it has collected. The way is open for British exploration of Egyptian archaeology.
1802
Germany
Rediscovering The Past
The first Chair of Archaeology is appointed at the Christian-Albrechts-Universität in Kiel.
1803 - 1866
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Political Context
Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr succeeds his father as leader of the Qawasim. He expands the Qawasim Empire
to the east to encompass the areas now known as Khor Fakkan and Kalba. He delegates the
administration of key strongholds to his brothers and later to his sons. His half-brother Salih bin Saqr
rules Sharjah from 1803 to 1838, followed by his son Saqr bin Sultan (until 1846), and then his son
Abdallah bin Sultan (until 1855).
1803 - 1818
Saudi Arabia
Political Context
The third Imam, Saud ibn ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, faces a hostile reaction from the Ottoman Empire through its
powerful viceroy in Egypt Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha. After ‘Abd al-‘Aziz’s death in 1814, his son, Abdallah,
battles with the Egyptian army in many regions of the state. Finally Dir‘iyya is surrendered, and Imam
Abdallah is then taken to Turkey, where he is executed.
1804
Serbia
Political Context
The First Serbian Uprising culminates in the first Serbian Vožd (Grand Leader), a progenitor of the
Karađorđević Dynasty, Đorđe Petrović. He is elected, at a gathering of the Serbs at Orašac on the Feast
of the Presentation, having won many famous victories against stronger and better-armed Turkish
armies at Ivankovac, Mišar and Varvarin. Following the Treaty of Bucharest and the failure of the
Uprising, Petrović flees to Austria in 1813, but soon after, eager to continue his efforts at expelling the
Turks, he joins the Greek liberation movement. He secretly returns to Serbia in 1817 to discuss a joint
plan of action with the Prince of Serbia Miloš Obrenović, but Miloš has him assassinated.
Around 1805
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Economy And Trade
The Qawasim demand tribute from the British East India Company in exchange for navigational rights in
the Gulf; the British then begin military interventions aimed at destroying the economic hegemony of the
Qawasim in the Lower Gulf region.
1805 - 1867
Egypt
Political Context
During this time Egypt is a legally nominal Ottoman province governed by a wali on behalf of the
Ottoman Sultan, although de facto it is virtually independent, with its walis styling themselves as
Khedives. Despite their legally subservient status, Egypt’s walis enjoy far more political power than their
descendants, who, decades later, rule the country as nominally independent sultans and kings.
1806
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Political Context
A temporary Peace Accord is achieved between the British East India Company, represented by Captain
David Seton the Resident at Muscat, and Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr. This comes following several incidents
labelled by the British as “piracy”, which the Qawasim argue is crucial defence of their existentially
important economic interests in the Gulf region.
1806 - 1921
Jordan
Rediscovering The Past
The 19th century is the age of rediscovery and of opening up the monuments and sites of the Ancient
East to Western civilisation. Most ancient sites of Transjordan such as Petra, Jerash, Gadara (Umm
Qays), Amra, Umm al-Rasas, Mushatta and many others are explored, documented and identified during
the 19th century.
1806
Germany
Political Context
The twin battles of Jena and Auerstedt are fought – in the midst of the collapse of the Prussian State and
abolition of the Holy Roman Empire by Kaiser Franz II – under pressure from Napoleon Bonaparte.
1807 - 1837
Italy
Cities And Urban Spaces
In Milan, Luigi Cagnola completes the construction of the Arch of Peace, started during the Napoleonic
age and inspired by the Arc du Carrousel in Paris. The stunning architectures of the Napoleonic age use
arches, obelisks and allegorical groups of Roman and French classical inspiration.
1807
Egypt
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
On 8 May Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha, the Ottoman Governor of Egypt, gives the order to start digging the
Mahmudiya Canal, from the River Nile to Alexandria through al-Buhayra, to transport water and as a
route for cargo ships.
1807 - 1816
Portugal
Political Context
First Napoleonic invasion. Prince Regent João (1767–1826, crowned in 1816) transfers the court and the
seat of political power to Brazil, avoiding being deposed and replaced by a Napoleonic nominee as in
other European kingdoms. In Portugal, Beresford, the British governor, intervenes in Portuguese general
politics disregarding national needs.
1808
United Kingdom
Rediscovering The Past
Claudius Rich is appointed East India Company Resident at Baghdad. His work at Babylon and Nineveh
stimulates European interest in the archaeology of Iraq. East India Company men play a major role in
the exploration and mapping of the Middle East.
1808 - 1814
Tunisia
Cities And Urban Spaces
The construction of the Yussef Sahib al-Taba‘a Mosque is the last great architectural ensemble overseen
by the Husaynid Regency of Tunis. The mosque is the main unit of this integrated complex, known as a
kulliye, which also includes a mosque and two madrasas (schools), two mausoleums, a funduq (inn),
hammam (steamroom), sabil (public fountain) and a suq (market).
1808
Egypt
Cities And Urban Spaces
Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha builds Shubra Palace on the site of a former kiosk where walis went for recreation
during the Ottoman era.
1808 - 1813
Spain
Political Context
Guerra de la Independencia (Peninsular War) during the French occupation of the Iberian Peninsula and
the rule of King Joseph-Napoleon Bonaparte.
1809 - 1810
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Political Context
Repeated skirmishes between British and Qawasim vessels are labelled “piracy” by the former and taken
as justification to plot the final destruction of the Qawasim by the latter. The British launch naval attacks
against the Qawasim strongholds at Ras al-Khaimah along the Gulf and on the Persian littoral. However,
the Qawasim succeed in rebuilding their fleet and positions to resume their defensive trade-war against
the British and their Omani allies.
1809
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Giacomo Leopardi (1798–1837), philosopher, scholar and one of the greatest Italian poets of all times,
writes his first poem.
1809 - 1829
Egypt
Migrations
Description de l'Egypte first appears in 1809 and continues to be published as a series until the final
volume appears in 1829. It offers a comprehensive scientific description of ancient and modern Egypt as
well as its natural history.
1809 - 1899
Spain
Political Context
The beginning of the independence process in the Spanish territories in South America and Mexico,
influenced by the American and French revolutions. The first Declaration of Independence is in Ecuador in
1809 and the American process ends in 1898 with Cuba, followed by the independence of the Philippines
and the selling of the Carolinas and the Mariana islands to Germany in 1899.
1809
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
Establishment of Berlin’s first university, the Humboldt-Universität.
1810 - 1880
Tunisia
Fine And Applied Arts
Buildings present innovation in their architecture, decoration and positioning. Palaces, patrician houses
and mosques incorporate elements of Baroque style; new European techniques and decorative touches
that recall Italian arts are evident at the same time as the increased use of foreign labour.
1810 - 1880
Tunisia
Fine And Applied Arts
A new lifestyle develops in the luxurious mansions inside the medina and also in the large properties of
the surrounding area. Mirrors and consoles, chandeliers from Venice etc., are set alongside SpanishNorth African furniture. All manner of interior items, as well as women’s clothing and jewellery,
experience the same mutations.
1810 - 1830
Tunisia
Economy And Trade
Situated at the confluence of the seas of the Mediterranean, Tunis is seen as a great commercial city that
many of her neighbours fear. Food and luxury goods are in abundance and considerable fortunes are
created through international trade and the trade-race at sea.
1810 - 1845
Tunisia
Migrations
Taking advantage of treaties known as Capitulations an increasing number of Europeans arrive to seek
their fortune in the commerce and industry of the regency, in particular the Leghorn Jews, Italians and
Maltese.
1810 - 1850
Tunisia
Migrations
Important increase in the arrival of black slaves. The slave market is supplied by seasonal caravans and
the Fezzan from Ghadames and the sub-Saharan region in general.
1810 - 1930
Tunisia
Migrations
The end of the race in the Mediterranean. For over 200 years the Regency of Tunis saw many free or
enslaved Christians arrive from all over the Mediterranean Basin. The Oriental influx is due also to the
presence of Turkish power.
1810 - 1850
Tunisia
Rediscovering The Past
Travellers and explorers of modern times have scoured and described the Regency of Tunis. Their
missions to the region provided occasions to discover the remains of antiquity and open up new fields of
research to European scholars.
1810 - 1920
Tunisia
Travelling
Multiple exploratory missions and studies scoured the Regency of Tunis. These missions provided the first
opportunity to discover the remains of antiquity and to open up new fields of research.
1810 - 1822
Morocco
Political Context
In relation to trade policy, Mulay Sulayman opposes the liberalism of his father Muhammad Ibn ‘Abd
Allah by passing an edict in 1814 imposing a 50 per cent duty on imports, and takes restrictive measures
by banning the export of most Moroccan commodities to Europe, including grain, oil, wool, animal hides
and livestock. The years of drought and swarms of locusts that devastated all crops between 1810 and
1816 caused a shortage of basic commodities, price increases and famine, on top of the plague
epidemics that swept the country. All of these factors necessarily weakened the country financially and
demographically. This could help to explain the inward-looking policies adopted by the sovereign Mulay
Sulayman, who—according to some historical sources—claimed that he did not need Europe and hoped
that Europe did not need him. A desperate and exhausted Mulay Sulayman resigned and chose his
nephew Mulay ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Hisham as his successor.
1810 - 1830
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Fine And Applied Arts
A masterpiece of Byzantine sculpture, the iconostasis in the Monastery of St John at Bigor near Debar is
created in this period by Petre Filipovski Garkata (d. 1854) and his group of craftsmen. Carved in walnut,
the iconostasis depicts scenes from the Old and New Testaments and varied floral motifs. This
Macedonian master of woodcarving and his associates also executed the iconostases in Lesnovo
Monastery.
1810 - 1862
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
One of the most prominent Macedonian poets, folklorists and educators, Dimitar Miladinov(1810–62) is
born in Struga. He spends most of his life teaching in the Ohrid region. His greatest achievement is the
collection of folk songs between 1854 and 1860.
1811 - 1886
Austria
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Franz Liszt is born in Austria. He becomes one the leading composers and a piano virtuoso of the 19th
century. He dies in Bayreuth.
1811
Austria
Reforms And Social Changes
A commission under the chairmanship of Franz von Zeiller drafts the General Civil Code.
1811
Egypt
Political Context
On 1 March, Muhammad ‘Ali invites some 470 Mamluk beys to the Citadel for a feast to celebrate his
son’s imminent departure for Mecca. When the feasting is over the Mamluks mount their lavishly
decorated horses and are led in procession down the narrow, high-sided defile, below what is now the
Police Museum. As they approach Bab al-Azab, the great gates swing closed and gunfire rains down on
them from above. After the fusillades, Muhammad ‘Ali’s soldiers wade in with swords and axes to finish
the job. Legend relates that only one Mamluk escaped alive, leaping over the wall on his horse.
1812
Romania
Political Context
After the Russian–Ottoman war of 1806–12 Russia annexes the eastern part of Moldavia (Bessarabia).
1812
Spain
Political Context
Spain's first Constitution of 1812, influenced by the French Revolution, is revolutionary because it
declares the Spanish American colonies to be provinces and all their inhabitants citizens. The constitution
reduces some of the powers and privileges of the monarchy, aristocracy and church and will influence
future post-independence South American constitutions. Up to 1876 Spain will change its constitution
four times (1837, 1845, 1869, 1876).
1812 - 1817
Germany
Travelling
John Lewis Burckhardt from Switzerland journeyed to the “Orient”, especially to Aleppo in Syria, to study
the Near East and Islam. While there, under the pseudonym Sheikh Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd-Allah and living as
a Muslim businessman, he not only translated from English to Arabic Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe, but
also rediscovered the city of Petra (Jordan) in 1812.
1813
Romania
Fine And Applied Arts
Gheorghe Asachi teaches a class of drawing and history of art at the School for Surveying Engineers
(Moldavia).
1813
Spain
Political Context
The Valençay Treaty ends the war between Spain and France. Return of King Fernando VII and absolutist
restoration.
1813 - 1815
Germany
Political Context
The Liberation Wars (and the decisive Battle of Leipzig in 1913) were between Napoleon Bonaparte’s
French troops and Central Europe; Napoleon is overthrown.
1814
Tunisia
Cities And Urban Spaces
The reign of Hammuda Pasha Bey, known as the “Founder” of modern Tunisia, comes to an end.
1814
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Cities And Urban Spaces
Sharjah becomes the main seat of the ruling Sheikh, Sultan bin Saqr al-Qasimi I, and the centre of the
government of the Sharjah Emirate.
1814
Greece
Political Context
Foundation of the secret organisation Filiki Etaireia (Friendly Society) prepares the ground for the Greek
Revolution.
1814
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The first book in Macedonian, History of the Frightening and Second Communion of Jesus, written by
Joakim Krchovski (c.1750–1820) is published in Budim. Krchovski was a herald of the Macedonian
cultural revival and went on to publish more books on religious matters. In the early 19th century in
Macedonia only priests and other Christian dignitaries were educated enough to enlighten Macedonian
people through literature in their mother tongue.
1814
France
Political Context
Abdication of Napoleon I on 6 April sees the end of the First French Empire (1804–14).
1814 - 1815
France
Political Context
First Restoration: the return of the monarchy, referred to as the Bourbon Restoration. Louis XVIII
(brother of Louis XVI) facilitated this by accepting a return to the monarchy by means of the Charter of
1814. This Charter combined the more moderate ideas of the Revolution with certain monarchist
traditions.
1814 - 1815
Germany
Political Context
The Wiener Kongress (Congress of Vienna) saw the restoration of the political state (the 1792 Ancien
Régime), realignment of the borders, and creation of a loosely arranged German Bund (Federation).
1814 - 1815
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
The Wiener Kongress (Congress of Vienna) decides on territorial realignment and the constitutional
restoration of Europe.
1814 - 1815
Austria
Political Context
The Great Peace Congress is held in Vienna from 18 September 1814 to 9 June 1815. Clemens Wenzel
Duke of Metternich organises the Austrian predominance in Italy. Austria exchanges the Austrian
Netherlands for the territory of the Venetian Republic and creates the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia.
1815 - 1816
Tunisia
Political Context
The English Admiral Edward Pellow, 1st Viscount Exmouth imposes on the regencies of Algiers, Tunis and
Tripoli new recommendations to slow the race at sea. He inaugurates the so-called Gunboat diplomacy,
which involves the threat of military force.
1815 - 1920
Jordan
Political Context
Jordan is a part of Ottoman Syria. Its importance lies in being a land bridge connecting Anatolia and
Syria with north Arabia, Egypt and North Africa and hence the necessity of establishing Ottoman
fortresses to guard the Syrian and Egyptian pilgrimage routes.
1815 - 1859
Italy
Economy And Trade
Italy is an agricultural country. Political fragmentation is an obstacle to trade and economic development.
The different states use not only different currencies, but also different systems of measurement.
1815 - 1920
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Triumph of the opera (or melodrama), a form of theatre born in the 17th century, in which the characters
express themselves by singing. In the 19th century, this form of art becomes very popular in Europe. In
Italy, the opera becomes the most important musical genre and overshadows all other musical forms.
1815 - 1816
Italy
Rediscovering The Past
Antonio Canova, acting on behalf of Pope Pio VII, recovers from France several pieces of art belonging to
the Papal States, which had been brought to Paris by Napoleon, including the Villa Borghese’s
archaeological collection.
1815
Italy
Political Context
The Congress of Vienna decides the restoration of pre-Napoleonic monarchies: Kingdom of Sardinia
(Piedmont, Genoa, Sardinia); Kingdom of Two Sicilies (Southern Italy and Sicily), the Papal States (part
of Central Italy), Grand Duchy of Tuscany and other smaller states. Much of northern Italy (Milan,
Venice, Trieste etc.) is under the Austrian empire.
1815 - 1860
Italy
Political Context
Italian “Risorgimento” (movement for national unification).
1815
Serbia
Political Context
The Second Serbian Uprising – the Takovo Uprising – represents the second stage of the Serbian revolt
against the Ottoman Empire, which breaks out soon after. The revolt leads to recognition of Serbian
autonomy within the Ottoman Empire and establishment of the Kneževina (Principality) of Serbia, which
obtained its own Assembly, Constitution and ruling dynasty.
1815
France
Political Context
March–July, the Cent Jours (Hundred Days) between which Napoleon I returns to power and then finally
abdicates after defeat at Waterloo.
1815 - 1830
France
Political Context
Second Restoration: the reign of Louis XVIII and his brother Charles X. France experiences an economic
boom (i.e. the development of the railways), but discontent grows over the king’s authoritarian policies.
1815 - 1848
France
Economy And Trade
The development of transport networks: the creation of railway lines from 1832, expansion of the road
network and construction of a large number of canals.
1815 - 1848
France
Economy And Trade
The pace of industrialisation picks up significantly: millions of tons of coal and iron are produced and
production in the textile industry is enhanced by the Jacquard loom.
1815 - 1866
Germany
Political Context
Germany
Cities And Urban Spaces
German Confederation.
1815 - 1920s
Up until 1815 Hamburg had been a free city, which began to be developed under the German
Confederation. A huge fire in 1842 then called for a huge rebuilding programme that continues up until
1897, with development of the customs examination area in 1888, and the Speicherstadt, the world’s
largest warehouse district. In 1892, cholera caused some 8,000 deaths, but by 1900 the population is 1
million. A social housing scheme is implemented in the 1920s.
1815 - 1848
Germany
Fine And Applied Arts
The painting by Carl Spitzweg, Der Sonntagsspaziergang (The Sunday Walk, 1841), exemplifies the
Biedermeier era (an expression of the popular present reality) in art at this time. Incidentally, Spitzweg’s
painting Der arme Poet (The Poor Poet) was the most popular painting in Germany in the 19th century.
1815 - 1848
Germany
Migrations
An estimated 60,000 German citizens leave the territory that later becomes the German Bund
(Federation).
1815 - 1848
Germany
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Biedermeier era in literature (i.e. works by Mörike and von Droste-Hülshoff) is characterised by
melancholia, a desire to escape to an idyll and to recapture religion and the homeland.
1815
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
Mahmud II leaves Topkapı Palace to live in Beşiktaş Palace.
1816
Tunisia
Travelling
Queen Caroline of Brunswick visits the Regency of Tunis as a guest of the Bey. She is hosted at the
Palais de la Rose in Manouba.
1816
France
Reforms And Social Changes
The stethoscope is invented by Dr René Laennec.
1816
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Gioachino Rossini (1795–1868), the young director of the San Carlo Theatre of Naples, the most
important opera house at the time, puts on stage in Rome the Barber of Seville. The opera, thanks to its
easy and passionate pacing, sets a new benchmark for the light operatic style, namely, the opera buffa
(comic opera).
1816
Italy
Rediscovering The Past
In Naples, inauguration of the Royal Bourbon Museum, whose holdings include the rich collection of
archaeological items belonged to Elisabetta Farnese and the pieces excavated in Pompei during the 18th
century. All such holdings are personal properties of the king.
1816
Egypt
Reforms And Social Changes
Modern education in Egypt starts with the School of Engineering, which is established by Muhammad ‘Ali
in the Castle during 1816, to train and prepare specialists in that area.
1816
Egypt
Political Context
Ibrahim Pasha leads Egypt’s expedition to Hijaz and crushes the Wahhabi Revolution.
1816
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The book titled Mirror by Kiril Pejchinovic (1771–1845) is published in Budim. This great Macedonian
educator was born in Tearce near Tetovo. The first books in Macedonian published in the early 19th
century were on religious subjects, which was understandable given that they were written by people of
the Church.
1816 - 1830
France
Economy And Trade
The rise of the Stock Exchange in Paris, the financial capital of Europe.
1816 - 1830
Germany
Fine And Applied Arts
Architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel engraved a certain style on Berlin, starting with the Neue Wache (New
Guardhouse, 1816–18) and followed by the Konzerthaus at Berlin’s Gandarmenmarkt (1818–21).
Opposite the Lustgarten (Pleasure gardens) on what is now known as Museum Island in Berlin, Schinkel
built the first royal museum, the Altes Museum (opened 1830), marking the beginning of the Island’s
history.
1817
Romania
Travelling
August–September: Habsburg Emperor Francis I and his wife Carolina visit the cities of Transylvania and
are very well received by the population.
1817
Spain
Reforms And Social Changes
Slave trade (trata de negros) abolished by the Spanish Parliament at Cádiz. Following the influence of the
French Revolution the anti-slavery movement grew in Europe. In 1837 slavery was abolished in Spain
but not in the colonies. The government later freed the slaves of Puerto Rico (1873) and Cuba (1878).
1817 - 1821
Portugal
Political Context
The emergence of liberal ideas. In Porto a Provisional Ruling Council is created (1820) and pursues the
rebellion against British rule that started in Lisbon. Liberal revolution breaks out in Porto (August 1820),
spreads to Lisbon, beginning the radical cycle known as Vintismo. King João VI is forced to return to
Portugal from Brazil in 1821.
1817
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
Rise of the Wartburgfest, an assembly of radical students who want to implement the idea of a German
National State.
1818 - 1819
Italy
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Construction of the first steamboats. The first steamboat lines in the Mediterranean: Naples shipyards
build the steamboat Ferdinando I (for the line Naples–Genoa–Marseille); Genoa shipyards build the
steamboat Eridano (to be used in the Adriatic Sea).
1818
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
Arthur Schopenhauer publishes Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung (The World as Will and Representation
is the title of the latest, 2008, English translation; the first was published in 1883).The second, expanded
German edition appeared in 1944.
1819
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Political Context
The British put a stop to Qawasim hegemony in the Lower Gulf region by destroying their ports,
strongholds, and fleets on both shores of the Arab Gulf.
1819
Spain
Fine And Applied Arts
Founding of the Museo Nacional del Prado with the Royal collection of paintings as one the first museums
in Spain.
1819
France
Fine And Applied Arts
The Raft of the Medusa, by the Romantic painter Théodore Géricault.
1819
Germany
Political Context
The Karlsbader Beschlüsse (Carlsbad Decrees) was intended to suppress liberal and national movements
through censorship of the press and political persecution.
1820 - 1870
France
Economy And Trade
An exponential growth in agriculture sees increased land cultivation, mechanisation and expansion of
crops grown for fodder.
1820
France
Migrations
The first German immigrants enter France.
1820
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Cities And Urban Spaces
British Royal Navy surveyors visit Sharjah.
1820
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Political Context
The British impose a Peace Treaty on the Qawasim and other sheikhs of the Arab littoral of the Gulf. The
signing is preceded by a preliminary agreement forcing the sheikhs to turn over all remaining vessels,
fortifications and weapons in exchange for the restoration of their fishing and pearling vessels. The
Treaty enjoins all signatories to fly a specific red-and-white flag.
After 1820
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Economy And Trade
Pearling becomes the major industry of the Qawasim and other sheikhdoms of the Arab littoral of the
Gulf; exports provide the most important revenues.
1820s - 1850s
Italy
Economy And Trade
Industrialisation begins at a slower pace compared with other Western European countries. It
concentrates in Northern Italy (Piedmont, Lombardy) and in the Kingdom of Two Sicilies. Silk production
is the strongest industrial sector.
1820
Italy
Rediscovering The Past
Edict by Cardinal Bartolomeo Pacca (1756–1844) dictating a comprehensive set of measures for the
protection of cultural heritage in the Papal States: it is the first comprehensive law on the protection of
cultural heritage issued in Italy and it will become a model for the other Italian states.
1820 - 1831
Italy
Political Context
In 1820–21 and 1830–31, uprisings in different parts of Italy in favour of national unification and
constitutional rule. They meet harsh repression.
1820s
United Kingdom
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
British interest in classical Arabic culture including literature sometimes originates in India where the first
printed Arabic version of One Thousand and One Nights is published.
1820
Egypt
Reforms And Social Changes
Muhammad ‘Ali sends the first educational “mission” of Egyptian students to Europe.
1820 - 1823
Spain
Political Context
In 1820, the army mutiny led by Rafael del Riego leads to King Fernando VII accepting the Constitution,
in spite of his former opposition to constitutional monarchy, bringing in the Trienio Liberal period of
popular rule. The Congress of Verona in 1822 gives France a mandate to restore Fernando as absolute
monarch. In 1823 the French army invades Spain to restore absolutism, ending the Trienio Liberal.
1820
Portugal
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
14 October: The steamship Conde de Palmela arrives on the Tagus River. Built in Liverpool by
Mottershead and Hays, it was commissioned by the Portuguese consul there. It is said to be the first ship
to cross the Biscay, a journey of 1,000 miles, and the first steamship to be seen in Portugal.
1820
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Les Méditations Poétiques by the Romantic poet Alphonse de Lamartine.
1820 - 1825
Germany
Rediscovering The Past
The German naturalists and explorers Wilhelm Friedrich Hemprich and Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg
embark on a research tour in cooperation with Martin Lichtenstein (who published Reisen im südlichen
Afrika (Tourism in Southern Africa) in 1810 and was appointed director of the Berlin Zoological Museum
in 1813) from Cairo to Derna in Libya, along the Nile, and through the Sinai Desert and Lebanon,
collecting natural and historical specimens.
1820s - 1860s
Germany
Travelling
The formation of modern tourism grows in stages, first the nobility, then the educated middle classes and
finally citizens of much more modest means. Karl Baedeker, who published the first successful travel
book in 1827, was one of the innovators of modern mass tourism. The first group- and corporation-travel
tours were inaugurated by the English firm Thomas Cook in 1840. In 1863 the first travel agency opened
in Breslau, followed in 1869 by the founding of the German Alp Society, which opened up the Alps to
tourism.
1821 - 1822
Romania
Political Context
January 1821–July 1822: revolution in Moldavia and Wallachia against the Phanariotes (Greek rulers
imposed by the Ottoman Empire since the beginning of the 18th century) and for social and economic
measures to improve the lives of the people. After the suppression of the revolution the Empire appoints
Romanian rulers in Moldavia (Ioniţă Sandu Sturdza) and Walachia (Grigore Dimitrie Ghica).
1821
Austria
Economy And Trade
In Trieste, Josef Ressel equips the steamship Civetta with a ship’s propeller for the first time.
1821 - 1822
Italy
Cities And Urban Spaces
Giuseppe Valadier’s neoclassical project for the area next to the Rome northern gate is completed: it
encompasses Piazza del Popolo and a new scenographic access to the Pincio hill.
1821 - 1822
Italy
Fine And Applied Arts
Francesco Hayez paints I Vespri Siciliani, a historical painting expressing the new revolutionary and
independence ideas that are taking root in Italy.
1821 - 1859
Italy
Migrations
Harsh repression of pro-national unification and pro-constitution movement forces many activists –
including Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi – to flee abroad.
1821
Greece
Political Context
The Greek Revolution against the Ottoman Empire begins.
1821 - 1825
Lebanon
Political Context
Bashir Shihab II, who was elected as amir in 1788 under Ottoman suzerainty, is overthrown when he
backs Acre, and flees to Egypt, later to return and form an army. Bashir Jumblatt, the Druze leader,
gathers the Druze factions and declares a rebellion that leads to massacres and battles with the
Maronites who support Bashir Shihab.
1822
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Cities And Urban Spaces
A survey of Sharjah records it as having fortified towers and walls, a large mosque, as well as single- and
two-storey houses.
1822
Italy
Rediscovering The Past
Inauguration of the Vatican Museums’ Braccio Nuovo (new wing), which completes the Chiaramonti
Museum, whose construction had started in 1807, under the impulse of Pope Pius VII (Barnaba
Chiaramonti). The Museum’s collection was set up by the sculptor Antonio Canova and included a large
body of archaeological items.
1822
Italy
Travelling
The Grand Duchy of Tuscany issues the first official ruling in Italy regarding “those who bathe in the sea
in the open air”. Around that time, in Viareggio two wooden bathing establishments are built (one for
men, the other for women). They are intended for seawater therapy.
1822
United Kingdom
Rediscovering The Past
Champollion deciphers Egyptian hieroglyphs, giving voice to the wealth of ancient inscriptions. This
heralds the beginning of Egyptology.
1822 - 1859
Morocco
Political Context
At the beginning of his reign, Mulay Sulayman adopts a policy to isolate the country, excluding contact
with the European and even Turkish worlds. He leant on the national brotherhoods and maintained
mediaeval, feudal ways of life that eschewed Western technical innovations which he deemed to be
dangerous. He nonetheless signed agreements with Portugal in 1823, England in 1824 and France in
1825, under pressure to change his position on account of the international situation. During the first
third of the 19th century, Morocco was subject to systematic pressure from rapidly expanding European
imperialism.
1822
Portugal
Political Context
King João VI asks his heir Prince Pedro, Duke of Braganza (1798–1834) to remain in Brazil. Part of the
court decides to stay there. Facing revolt against the anti-Brazilian policy of Portugal, Pedro proclaims
the independence of Brazil on 7 September (Grito do Ipiranga). In October he is acclaimed as the first
Brazilian Emperor, Pedro I.
1822
Portugal
Political Context
1 October: Inspired by Cadiz Constitution members of Parliament authored the first liberal Constitution.
King João VI (1767-1826) promulgated the document on 1 October 1822, in Lisbon. Royal prerogatives
and the nobles and clergy privileges were limited, though with a weak impact.
1822
Portugal
Reforms And Social Changes
1 October: Unavoidable recognition by King João VI of the first liberal Constitution approved by
Parliament on 23 September. Inspired by the Spanish Constitution of 1812 and the French ones of 1791,
1793 and 1795, royal prerogatives and the privileges of nobles and clergy are to be limited, though this
has only weak impact.
1822
France
Rediscovering The Past
The scholar, philologist and Orientalist Jean-François Champollion (1790–1832) deciphers the Rosetta
Stone hieroglyphs.
1822 - 1829
Germany
Political Context
The War between Greece and the Ottoman Empire concludes with Greece attaining its independence with
the help of Russia and the Western nations.
1822 - 1930
Germany
Travelling
The building of Museumsinsel (Museum Island) in Berlin.
1823 - 1825
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Political Context
After the defeat of the Qawasim by the British, a British Residency is established at Bushire on the
Persian littoral to represent Britain’s political, economic and military interests there. Shortly after, a
“Native Agent” is based in Sharjah as his representative. Native agents were generally non-Arab but
Arabic-speaking Muslims from the Indian subcontinent or the Persian littoral of the Gulf, chosen for their
loyalty to Britain and their in-depth local and regional knowledge. Their task was to monitor activities on
the Trucial Coast and liaise with local powers on Britain’s behalf.
1823
Spain
Reforms And Social Changes
The French army, known as “Los cien mil hijos de San Luis” (“the hundred thousand sons of St. Louis”),
invades Spain to restore absolutism ending the Trienio Liberal (1820 –1823). In 1820 King Fernando VII
had agreed to the Constitution, in spite of his opposition to a constitutional monarchy. The Congress of
Verona in 1822 gave France a mandate to restore Fernando as absolute monarch.
1823
Turkey
Political Context
28 July: Treaty of Erzurum, which ends the Ottoman–Iranian war and restores the previous border.
1824
Romania
Cities And Urban Spaces
During the reign of Prince Grigore IV Ghica, the major streets in Bucharest, which used to be covered
with wooden planks, are covered with cobblestones.
1824
Italy
Rediscovering The Past
In Turin, inauguration of the Royal Museum of Egyptian Antiquities. The Museum holding includes 5,268
Egyptian items brought to Italy by Bernardino Drovetti and bought by the King of Sardinia, Charles Felix
of Savoy.
1824 - 1891
Saudi Arabia
Political Context
Following the events of 1818, the Hijaz returns to Ottoman rule. Then in 1824 the Second Saudi State
emerges, led by Imam Turki bin Abdullah, and with its capital now in Riyad following the destruction of
Dir‘iyya. Imam Turki is then succeeded by the sons Imam Abdallah and ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Faisal. In
‘Abd al-Rahman’s reign, in 1891, the Second Saudi State falls into the hands of his enemy al-Rashid. This
prompts the king to leave Riyad for Kuwait with his family.
1824
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Fine And Applied Arts
Petre Filipovski Garkata and fellow artisans, including the master carver Makarie Frchkovski, create the
iconostasis in the Church of Holy Salvation, Skopje. Petre Filipovski developed his own recognisable style
of wood carving depicting scenes from the Old and New Testaments in which biblical figures were
rendered wearing traditional costumes of Macedonia. The iconostasis also depicts the artists who created
it as their “signature”.
1824
Portugal
Rediscovering The Past
Publication of O Alfageme de Santarém, a drama by Almeida Garret (1799–1854). The subject is the
dynastic crisis of 1383–85 when the Portuguese kingdom was invaded by Juan I of Castille, married to
the heir to the Portuguese throne, Princess Beatriz. In 1385, acclaimed King João I of Avis with Lady
Philippa of Lancaster created the dynasty of Avis, responsible for the era of the Discoveries.
1824
France
Fine And Applied Arts
The Massacre at Chios by the Romantic painter Eugène Delacroix.
1824
France
Fine And Applied Arts
The Pardon of Bonchamps by David d'Angers.
1824 - 1829
Germany
Cities And Urban Spaces
Rosenstein Palace is built by Giovanni Salucci under Wilhelm I; it has been a public museum since 1954.
1825
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The first proper British survey of the southern and western waters of the Gulf begins at Ras Musandam.
1825 - 1827
Austria
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
A railway line opens between Budweis (Bohemia) and Linz (Upper Austria). The rolling stock was not yet
steam-operated.
1825
Austria
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Johann Strauss creates his Wiener Walzer Kapelle, an orchestra specialising in the Viennese Waltz.
1825 - 1827
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Alessandro Manzoni (1785–1873) publishes I promessi sposi (The Betrothed), one of the most widely
read Italian novels. His use of the Italian language stands out as a model.
1825
Italy
Travelling
More than half a million pilgrims visit Rome on the occasion of the Catholic “Holy Year”. In the Roman
Catholic tradition, a Holy Year or Jubilee is a year of forgiveness of sins and reconciliation. Other Holy
Years were celebrated in 1875 and in 1900. Rome always attracted Catholic pilgrims, especially during
Holy Years.
1825
Greece
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The poets Alexandros and Panayotis Soutsos compile their first works, and introduce European
Romanticism to a newly liberated Greece.
1825
Lebanon
Political Context
Bashir Shihab II, helped by the Ottomans and by Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar (governor of Acre), defeats his
rival in the Battle of Simqanieh. Bashir Jumblatt dies in Acre at the order of al-Jazzar. Bashir II represses
the Druze rebellion, particularly in and around Beirut. This makes Bashir II the only leader of Mount
Lebanon.
1825
Portugal
Rediscovering The Past
Almeida Garrett writes the poems Camões (1825) and Dona Branca (1826), considered the first romantic
works in Portuguese. The hero, Camões, is presented as an outcast who, returning to the motherland,
dies in the year when Portugal loses its independence (1580). The fantasy of medieval wizardry traditions
is represented in Dona Branca.
Circa 1825
France
Fine And Applied Arts
The inventor Nicéphore Niépce is credited with the creation of the first “photograph”.
1825 - 1848
Germany
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
This era, one marked by the politician and statesman Klemens von Metternich, a supporter of restoration
politics and conditions prior to the French Revolution, is satirised by the Junges Deutschland, a
movement in literature (i.e. the works of Büchner, Heine and Grabbe) that is characterised by a rejection
of these beliefs in support of a free press and freedom of expression.
1826
France
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The invention of photography by Nicéphore Niépce.
1826
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Cities And Urban Spaces
Sharjah is recorded as having 175 stone buildings and 2,000 areesh (palm-frond) houses.
1826 - 1832
Portugal
Political Context
With the death of his father, Emperor Pedro I of Brazil becomes Pedro IV of Portugal but gives up the
throne to his daughter, future Queen Maria II. The proclamation of a moderate Constitutional Charter
does not stop the absolutist movement led by his brother, Prince Miguel (1802–66), who disregards the
rights of his niece Princess Maria and Pedro’s decision.
1826
Turkey
Political Context
15–17 June: The abolition and extermination of the Janissary corps (the so-called Auspicious Incident) in
İstanbul by troops loyal to Sultan Mahmud II. This act provides the conditions for institutional
modernisation.
1827
Austria
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Franz Schubert composes his Winterreise.
1827
Greece
Political Context
The London Treaty: England, Russia and France suggest to the Ottoman Sultan that he should recognise
Greek independence. This is the first step towards foundation of the Greek State.
1827
Egypt
Migrations
The French physician Antoine Barthelemy Clot, Clot Bey as he was known in Egypt, becomes the first
director of the Medical School and Hospital in Egypt.
1827
Egypt
Reforms And Social Changes
A School of Medicine is established at Abu Za‘bal and annexed to the Military Hospital there due to the
efforts of Clot Bek, a French physician. A fatwa is then issued by Sheikh Hasan al-Attar, which allowed
anatomizing cadavers as long as it was done in order to prevent disease.
1827 - 1831
Egypt
Reforms And Social Changes
A School of Veterinary Medicine emerges in Rashid in 1827, which then transfers to a building beside the
School of Medicine at Abu Za‘bal in 1831. Here the veterinary hospital is able to accommodate up to 110
horses and includes a Pharmacy, a Hall of Anatomy and areas for student and staff subsistence.
1827
Egypt
Political Context
When under the command of an Ottoman representative the entire Egyptian navy is sunk by the
European Allied fleet, Muhammad ‘Ali asks for the territory of Syria in compensation.
1827
Turkey
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
First steamboat in the Ottoman Empire is launched.
1827
Turkey
Political Context
20 October: A joint British, French and Russian fleet destroys the Ottoman and Egyptian navy at
Navarino as the Sublime Porte did not accept the declaration of the UK, France and Russia for an
autonomous Greece (in the Protocol of London, 6 July 1827).
1828 - 1829
Italy
Rediscovering The Past
The Grand Duke of Tuscany Leopold II and Charles X of France finance the archaeological expedition to
Egypt headed by Ippolito Rossellini and Jean-Francois Champollion.
1828
Greece
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The First Governor of the new Greek nation, Ioannis Kapodistrias, orders the foundation of the postal
service.
1828
Greece
Rediscovering The Past
Ioannis Kapodistrias oversees the establishment of Greece’s first museum, the Archaeological Museum of
Aegina.
1828
Greece
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The poem Hymn to Liberty by Dionysios Solomos becomes the Greek National Anthem with music
composed by Nikolaos Mantzaros.
1828 - 1848
Egypt
Cities And Urban Spaces
The Mosque of Muhammad ‘Ali is built between 1828 and 1848. Perched on the summit of the Citadel,
the Ottoman mosque with its animated silhouette and twin minarets, the largest to be built in the first
half of the 19th century, is the most visible mosque in Cairo.
1828 - 1910
Spain
Rediscovering The Past
Beginning of the restoration of the Alhambra by the Contreras family. The restoration is more an
“adornment” of the monument following ideas from Orientalism. The Contreras' casting workshop
reproduces plaster decorations from the palace sold as souvenirs and displayed at international
exhibitions, spreading the Alhambrismo or Alhambresque style.
1829
Romania
Political Context
The peace Treaty of Edirne institutes the Russian protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia, which lasts
until 1856. The Romanian countries remain under Russian occupation until 1834. Under the supervision
of the Russian authorities in 1830–31 the Organic Regulations, considered to be the first Romanian
constitutions, are drawn up and adopted.
1829
Romania
Economy And Trade
14 September: the Treaty of Edirne annuls the Ottoman monopoly on Wallachia and Moldavia’s
commerce.
1829
Austria
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Austrian Danube Steamboat Shipping Company is established.
1829
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Gioachino Rossini puts on stage in Paris his last opera, Guillaume Tell, featuring the fight of the Swiss
people for freedom from Habsburg domination. He wrote 39 operas, characterised by a style aiming at
pure musical beauty (bel canto). Great attention is paid to the sound of the voice and to technical
virtuosity, with little emphasis on the different dramatic situations and to the personality of the different
characters.
1829
United Kingdom
Economy And Trade
The Treaty of Adrianople, following a Russian-Turkish war, opens up the Black Sea to international trade.
Trebizond becomes a major port for Persia and India. Constantinople, Smyrna (Izmir) and Aleppo, which
have been major international trading communities for many centuries now, flourish with the expansion
of steam power.
1829
United Kingdom
Political Context
The poet Lord Byron epitomises Romantic support for Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire.
Over the next century, British opinion wavers between seeing the Ottoman Empire as a force for stability
or one oppressing Christian populations – the Armenians and Balkan Christians.
1829
Egypt
Migrations
Al-Waqa'i`a al-Masriya is established by order of Khedive Muhammad ‘Ali. It is the first indigenous Middle
Eastern newspaper, initially written in both Ottoman Turkish and Arabic.
1829
Spain
Economy And Trade
The Banco Español de San Fernando absorbs the highly indebted Banco Nacional de San Carlos, founded
in 1782, thus becoming in fact the first Spanish bank. The bank continues as such until 1856, when it
becomes Banco de España, the central Bank of Spain.
1829
United Kingdom
Political Context
Irish lawyer Daniel O’Connell leads the campaign for concession of Catholic Emancipation, which will
allow Roman Catholics to sit in the UK Parliament. The campaign is successful, helped along by the death
of George III, but O’Connell’s long-term goal is to repeal Ireland’s Act of Union with Great Britain.
1829
France
Fine And Applied Arts
École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures, Paris.
1829
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
3 March: Clothing regulation: the Ottoman state mandates the fez as the common headgear for all
Ottoman men.
1829
Turkey
Political Context
14 September: Treaty of Adrianople (present-day Edirne). This treaty secures Greek independence and
strengthens the autonomy of Wallachia, Moldavia (Romania), and Serbia.
1830 - 1880
Tunisia
Cities And Urban Spaces
Tunis is a cosmopolitan city. According to M. J. Henry Dunant, when visiting the regency in 1856, he
noted that: “more than 15 Christian nations are represented by a number of their nationals in Tunis”.
1830
Tunisia
Political Context
With the capture of Algiers, France ousts the Ottoman Empire and asserts its claim to the western
Mediterranean. The beys and the regency’s elite then become aware of the dangers posed by the
Europeans.
1830
Romania
Migrations
The beginning of Greek immigration into Brăila. Many Greeks emigrate to Wallachia and settle in the
Romanian ports on the Danube after the liberalisation of commerce on the Danube and Black Sea
(1828).
1830
France
Migrations
Polish intellectuals arrive in Paris, which becomes the capital of exiled Poland.
1830
France
Travelling
From 1830, among artists and intellectuals of the 19th century the journey to the ‘Orient’ to discover
ancient civilisations becomes a kind of ritual.
1830 - 1840
Jordan
Political Context
Bilad al-Sham (Greater Syria, including Jordan) is under Ibrahim Pasha who is ruling on behalf of his
father, Muhammad 'Ali of Egypt. Ibrahim Pasha is forced to retreat to Egypt through Transjordan where
the Egyptian army suffers severe casualties on its way back to Egypt.
1830s
Greece
Cities And Urban Spaces
Eduard Schaubert and Stamatios Kleanthis pioneer the urban redevelopment of Athens, initially under
Ioannis Kapodistrias. They produce topographical plans of Athens and, in doing so, lay the foundations
for the new capital.
1830s
United Kingdom
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The development of steam power in the early 19th century also applies to marine transport. Steamships
shorten distances, but they also require fuelling stations. In 1839, Britain acquires Aden as one fuelling
station on the route to India. Before construction of the Suez Canal, travellers sailed to Alexandria and
continued overland to Suez, picking up a steamer there.
1830s
United Kingdom
Migrations
With the new Kingdom of Greece, guaranteed by Britain, some Greeks migrate to Athens and the new
state, while others migrate from Greece to Constantinople, which has a huge Greek community.
Relations between Turks and Greeks suffer during the 19th century, leading to a slow cantonisation of
the region, culminating with the exchange of populations (Greeks from Turkey to Greece and Turks from
Greece to Turkey) after World War I.
From the same period, expansion of the old Hellenic port of Alexandria witnesses a mass migration of
Greeks, mostly from the Aegean islands to the city, making them, by the end of the century, the
wealthiest and most influential community in Alexandria.
1830 - 1844
Morocco
Political Context
The French expedition to Algeria arouses strong emotions in Morocco. It was understood to be a direct
threat, in particular following incursions by French troops into eastern Morocco. Mulay ‘Abd al-Rahman
accepted the call of the people of Tlemcen and gave his support to the religious and military leader ‘Abd
al-Qadir.
1830
Spain
Fine And Applied Arts
From the 1830s onwards the Moorish or Alhambresque style is popular in Europe, especially in Spain, but
also in England, Austria, Russia, Germany and the USA. This style is found not only in applied arts but
also in architecture and interior decoration including the well-known “Moorish” smoking or retiring rooms.
1830
Spain
Migrations
From 1830 onwards many Spaniards emigrate to North Africa (Morocco and Algeria), coinciding with the
French occupation of Algiers and as a consequence of the economic crises in Spain. The emigrants are
mostly from the Mediterranean regions such as Alicante, Almería and the Balearic Islands.
1830
Spain
Reforms And Social Changes
Fernando VII has no sons, only daughters, so abolishes under Pragmática Sanción, the Salic Law,
introduced by the Spanish branch of the Bourbon dynasty, which forbids women to reign. After the death
of Fernando VII in 1833, his eldest daughter becomes Queen of Spain as Isabel II.
1830
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Battle of Hernani, a drama by Victor Hugo.
1830
France
Political Context
June–July: the invasion of Algiers.
1830
France
Political Context
27–29 July: the Second French Revolution of July 1830 results in the fall of Charles X, who is succeeded
by his cousin Louis-Philippe.
1830
France
Political Context
The July Monarchy: Louis-Philippe becomes “Citizen-King”, and economic growth is joined by increased
poverty.
1830 - 1847
Germany
Political Context
Stimulated by the French July Revolution, the Vormärz (pre-March) Revolution refers to the formation of
political programmes and factional movements.
1830 - 1871
Germany
Cities And Urban Spaces
Due to the rise of industrialisation in Germany, in 1862, the Hobrecht-Plan aims to modernise Berlin over
the following 50 years.
1830 - 1840
Germany
Economy And Trade
Industrialisation and the Industrial Revolution.
Since 1830
Germany
Migrations
Transatlantic migration from Europe, to America, Canada, Brazil, Argentina and Australia.
1830
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
The French July Revolution strengthens the power of the Besitzbürgertum (the landed gentry).
Revolutions in central and north Germany enforce constitutional state reforms.
1831
France
Rediscovering The Past
The Chair in Egyptology at the Collège de France is created by a decree made by King Louis-Philippe of
France on 12 March.
1831
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Cities And Urban Spaces
The population of Sharjah rises to 13,900 inhabitants, its urban features are now much more substantial
in terms of its domestic, commercial and official architecture.
1831 - 1835
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Once Rossini has left the stage, his place is taken by Gaetano Donizetti (1797–1848) and Vincenzo Bellini
(1801–1835). They introduce the new romantic spirit into melodrama and establish a tighter link
between words and music. Their style is characterised by greater attention to the psychology of the
different characters.
1831
Italy
Political Context
Giuseppe Mazzini founds the republican movement for national unification, Giovine Italia (Young Italy).
1831
Greece
Political Context
The First Governor of Greece, Conte Ioannis Kapodistrias, is assassinated.
1831
Spain
Economy And Trade
Foundation of the Madrid stock exchange (Bolsa de Madrid), driven by the state's need to raise funds to
cover, among other things, debts arising from the Carlist wars.
1831
Lebanon
Political Context
Bashir II breaks away from the Ottoman Empire, allies with Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha of Egypt and assists
his son Ibrahim Pasha in a siege of Acre. This siege lasts seven months before the fall of the city on 27
May 1832. They also conquer Damascus on 14 June 1832.
1831
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
George Sand (Amantine Aurore Dupin) writes Indiana, a novel about a woman’s emotional journey.
1831
Turkey
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
11 November: The first newspaper in Ottoman Turkish, Takvim-I Vekayi, published by the state.
1832
Romania
Fine And Applied Arts
Gheorghe Asachi founds in Iaşi a lithographic printing press called Institutul Albinei (The Bee Institute).
1832
France
Travelling
Like many artists, the painter Eugène Delacroix travelled to North Africa, Morocco and Algeria, returning
with many paintings and sources for inspiration.
1832
Spain
Economy And Trade
Mechanisation of the textile industry in Catalonia with the introduction of steam-powered machines.
Progress in the textile industry continues in Catalonia until the 1920 crisis.
1832
Spain
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of Washington Irving's Tales of the Alhambra, a collection of essays, verbal sketches and
stories that Irving began to write while he was staying in the Alhambra in Granada. The book is
influenced by Romanticism and includes Spanish legends and traditions.
1832 - 1834
Portugal
Political Context
Civil war. Pedro returns to Portugal as Regent to defend his daughter’s rights. He launches military
operations from Azores and Porto against the absolutist faction of Prince Miguel favored by the Quadruple
Alliance. After the Miguelists’ defeat, peace terms depend on the Évora-Monte Convention and Prince
Miguel’s exile.
1832
Portugal
Economy And Trade
Statesman and jurist José Mouzinho da Silveira (1780–1851) abolishes old taxes over real estate income,
privileges and immunities detrimental to the kingdom’s economy. He creates the Tribunal do Tesouro
Público for tax collection and Treasury administration. He defines the powers of the Minister of Finance
and regulates Customs administration, among other reforms.
1832
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
La Sylphide is a Romantic ballet by Fillippo Taglioni in which his daughter, Marie, danced en pointe in the
title role.
1832
Germany
Political Context
From 27 to 30 May an apparently non-political country fair, the “Hambacher Fest”, was held by a German
national democratic assembly, demanding freedom, national entity and popular sovereignty.
1832
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
The “Hambacher Fest” demonstrates the liberal, democratic and national opposition in Germany.
1833
Romania
Cities And Urban Spaces
Copou, one of the first public gardens in Romania, is laid out in Iaşi, Moldavia, at the initiative of Prince
Mihail Sturdza.
1833
Spain
Political Context
Isabel II becomes Queen of Spain. The Salic Law forbidding women to reign had been abolished in 1830
because Fernando VII's only heirs were female. His brother, Carlos de Borbón, asserts his claim to the
throne against his niece (first Carlist War, 1836–39); two further Carlist wars will follow (1846–49,
1872–76).
1833 - 1835
Portugal
Economy And Trade
18 September: The first Commercial Code by jurist José Ferreira Borges grants free trade and
distribution of goods, abolishing monopolies, privileges and real estate transfer taxes. Article 2 defines a
commercial act and the nature of intervening actors.
1833
Portugal
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The death of Luísa Todi (b. 1753), the most celebrated mezzo-soprano opera singer in Portugal. Luísa
began her musical career when she was 14 years old. She performed in major European cities and was
invited to perform in the courts of Catherine of Russia and Frederick William of Prussia.
1833
Germany
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
First communication by telegram.
1833
Turkey
Political Context
8 April: Treaty of Kütahya with Egypt. The Ottomans recognise Syria, Palestine and Lebanon as within
the sphere of the Egyptian control.
1833
Turkey
Political Context
8 July: Defensive Treaty of Hünkar İskelesi with Russia establishes Russian naval superiority in the Black
Sea.
1834
Greece
Cities And Urban Spaces
Athens becomes the capital of the newly established state.
1834
Greece
Cities And Urban Spaces
In October, King Otto issues a decree for reconstruction of the city of Sparta. Over the ancient city
Bavarian city-planners, headed by Fr. Staufert, design a city for 100,000 inhabitants based on the
Ippodamia system, with wide roads and many squares.
1834
Greece
Rediscovering The Past
The Numismatic Museum is established. In 1843, it is amalgamated with the National Library and housed
in a room at the University of Athens.
1834
United Kingdom
Travelling
A. W. Kinglake’s Eothen is the best known of the many travel books to the East. William M. Thackeray,
Benjamin Disraeli and Anthony Trollope all travel to the Near East, others wander around Asia Minor and
the Levant recording their impressions, often in search of classical inscriptions.
1834
United Kingdom
Political Context
The development of steam power brings increased trade and travel to the eastern Mediterranean. This
leads to the publication of travel literature and an interest in the archaeology of the Bible. A. W.
Kinglake’s Eothen is the most widely read of the travel books.
1834
Serbia
Political Context
In Vienna in 1813 Dimitrije Davidović, politician, diplomat, author of the Candlemas Constitution and one
of the founders of journalism in Serbia, launches Novine Serbske, Serbia’s first daily newspaper. The
newspapers are printed in Serbia for the first time in 1834.
1834
Egypt
Economy And Trade
A Khedival Decree promulgates the issue of an Egyptian currency consisting of a bi-metallic base of gold
and silver. The Egyptian pound, known as the geneih is introduced, which replaces the Egyptian piastre
(ersh) as the main unit of currency.
1834
Spain
Fine And Applied Arts
During his Grand Tour, after visiting Italy, Greece and Egypt, Owen Jones visits Granada and the
Alhambra. His six month stay in the Alhambra is very important in the development of his ideas about
polychromy and design.
1834
Spain
Political Context
Estatuto Real signed by the Queen Regent, María Cristina de Borbón, as a royal charter similar to the one
under the French King Louis XVIII. There is no constitution, but it has two chambers (similar to the
British House of Lords and House of Commons) and a government, with a president and ministers.
1834
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The birth in Ohrid of Kuzman Shapkarev (1834–1909), eminent Macedonian folklorist, ethnographer,
educator and author of textbooks. Owing to his collecting activities a great deal of Macedonian intangible
heritage was spared from oblivion. He was a teacher in Ohrid, Bitola, Prilep and Kukush. Later he worked
and lived in Sofia. Although his collections of oral folk literature were published as Bulgarian, most of his
works originated from Macedonia.
1834 - 1836
Portugal
Political Context
Queen Maria II (1819–53) regains the crown after her father’s death and the liberals’ victory. The Queen
has to cope with the transition from absolutism to constitutionalism and disputes between opposing
factions, conservatives on one side (Cartismo supporters of the 1826 Charter) and radicals on the other
(Vintismo defenders of the Constitution of 1822).
1834
Portugal
Reforms And Social Changes
May: Religious orders are abolished and expropriated by decree; some of the assets of the crown, the
Queen’s household and the absolutist aristocracy are nationalised. Monasteries are closed immediately
and their buildings adapted, but women's convents remain open until the departure or death of the last
nun.
1834
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
Standardisation of the Abitur (equivalent to the A-Level system used elsewhere) which allows students to
enter German universities.
1834
Germany
Travelling
The Sanssouci Palace in Potsdam is connected to Berlin by rail, one of the first electrified railway sections
in Old Germany. Since 1911, the Palace has been used as a film location (i.e. The Blue Angel, 1930).
1835
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Political Context
The British impose a Treaty to prohibit maritime warfare among the Arab littoral sheikhdoms during the
pearling season from May to November with Britain as enforcer of the peace. The British now term the
lands of the signatory sheikhdoms as “The Trucial Coast” or “Trucial Oman”. The Treaty is renewed
regularly until 1853, when a Perpetual Treaty is put into place.
1835 - 1837
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
For the first time, a cholera epidemic hits Italy, killing more than 140,000 (26,000 in Palermo and 19,600
in Naples). Its causes remain unknown until the 1880s. Its spread is favoured by poor sanitation in urban
centres. Cholera epidemics hit poor people especially and often occasion social unrest.
1835
Serbia
Political Context
The First Constitution of the Principality of Serbia (the Candlemas Constitution) is prompted by the
autocratic rule of Miloš Obrenović, founder of the Obrenović Dynasty and Serbian Prince (1815–39;
1858–60). It is signed in 1835 in the city of Kragujevac, with the intention to limit the absolute power of
Miloš, but under pressure from the Porte (Turkish Government), Austria and Russia the Constitution is
abolished as early as the following year.
1835
Egypt
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Opening of shipping routes between Alexandria and Marseille.
1835
Spain
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The premiere of Don Álvaro o la fuerza del sino by the Duke of Rivas marks the beginnings of Spanish
Romanticism in the theatre, especially tragedy, further developed in Don Juan Tenorio by José Zorrilla.
All the Romantic plays have elements from poetry and novels and some have a historical background.
1835
Portugal
Reforms And Social Changes
The buildings and portable heritage collected from the confiscations are sold in public auction to an
emergent new aristocracy and a newly empowered upper middle class and the proceeds used to fund
part of the state deficit.
1835
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Le Père Goriot by Honoré de Balzac tells the tragic story of a father’s love for his two daughters.
1835
Turkey
Political Context
Reorganisation of the bureaucracy and introduction of a new system of rank.
1835
France
Fine And Applied Arts
Germany
Cities And Urban Spaces
The daguerreotype process.
1835 - 1838
The first section of railway is established between Nürnberg and Fürth (6 km); the building of the longhaul between Leipzig and Dresden is finished in 1838.
1835
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
1 July: The War Academy is founded.
1835
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
Bureaucracy is reorganised and a new rank system is introduced.
1836
Lebanon
Travelling
The discovery of the Jeita Grotto, credited to Reverend William Thomson. Further expeditions reveal the
depth and the importance of the cave.
1836
Austria
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Austrian Lloyd, the main steamship company on the Mediterranean, with headquarters in Trieste, is
established.
1836
Austria
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
A stretch of the Northern Railway between Floridsdorf and Deutsch-Wagram comes into operation using
steam-powered locomotives.
1836 - 1862
Greece
Cities And Urban Spaces
The Royal Palace (today’s Parliament) is erected under the auspices of the director of the Munich
Academy of Arts and official architect of the Bavarian court, Friedrich von Gaertner.
1836
Egypt
Reforms And Social Changes
Rifa’a al-Rafi’ al-Tahtawi founds the School of Languages to educate and train professional interpreters
and translators.
1836 - 1845
Spain
Fine And Applied Arts
Publication of Owen Jones's Plan, Elevations, Sections and Details of the Alhambra (with an essay by
Pascual de Gayangos on the history of the Nasrid Dynasty) in 12 volumes, using the new technique of
chromolithography.
1836
Spain
Political Context
The Queen Regent, María Cristina, is forced to reinstate the 1812 Constitution after a military coup
(pronunciamiento) in order to get support from the liberals in the First Carlist War. Under the
Desamortización de Mendizábal Church properties are disentailed to fund the war. General Espartero
takes over the Regency from the Queen in 1841.
1836 - 1876
Spain
Political Context
As a consequence of political instability and of a woman taking over the rule of Spain, the deeply
conservative and ultra-Catholic Carlist party rises three times in three dynastic wars against the State
(1836–39, 1846–49 and 1872–76).
1836 - 1842
Portugal
Political Context
Period of Setembrismo: lower-middle-class rebellion against corruption and upper-middle-class
privileges. An industrialisation process takes off to counteract foreign dominance. To overcome the loss
of Brazilian revenues the colonisation of African possessions is boosted. The slave trade is prohibited in
1836 by abolitionist Marquis of Sá da Bandeira.
1836 - 1842
Portugal
Economy And Trade
Under the framework of liberal Setembrismo, which seeks to fight against corruption and the privileges of
the elite, an industrialisation process is promoted and protectionist customs taxes are adopted. One of
the main reasons is to reduce the import of English products. The colonisation of African possessions is
also developed.
1836 - 1842
Portugal
Reforms And Social Changes
Under Septembrismo the educational system is reformed by Passos Manuel (1801–62). To improve public
education, the Plano Nacional dos Lyceus Nacionais equips each district capital with a lyceu (based on the
French republican idea of lycée). The curriculum includes humanities and sciences and proposes an
inductive and experimental learning process.
1836
Portugal
Reforms And Social Changes
The slave trade is prohibited in possessions south of the Equator by a law introduced by Marquis of Sá da
Bandeira (1795–1876) for philanthropic and economic reasons. The loss of Brazil, and British pressure,
persuades the rulers to endorse abolition to retain in Africa the African labour needed to develop the
colonies there. In 1869, King Louis I (1838–89) decrees abolition.
1837 - 1855
Tunisia
Reforms And Social Changes
Ahmad Pasha Bey is known as the “Great Reformer” of modern Tunisia. Enlightened and open-minded,
he tries to modernise both State and Army.
1837 - 1840
Tunisia
Reforms And Social Changes
Foundation of the Polytechnic or military school of Bardo, responsible for the education of executives of
the army and public administration. The School provides education in the art of military strategy,
scientific disciplines, foreign languages, literature and religion.
1837 - 1854
Tunisia
Political Context
Rule of Ahmad Pasha Bey, known as the “Great Reformer” of modern Tunisia. His greatest achievements
include modernisation of the army and the abolition of slavery.
1837
Romania
Rediscovering The Past
Two peasants find a Gothic hoard (4th–5th centuries AD) – the Pietroasa Treasure – near a village from
Buzău county (Wallachia). Unfortunately, only 12 of the 22 golden pieces – jewellery and vases – were
preserved.
1837
Romania
Reforms And Social Changes
Based on the Organic Regulations adopted in 1831, the National Assembly of Wallachia includes for the
first time, apart from its traditional categories (the clergy and the aristocracy), representatives of the
middle classes.
1837
France
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Inauguration of the first passenger railway line in France to and from Paris and Saint-Germain-en-Laye.
1837
Lebanon
Travelling
The Galilee earthquake. In the 17th century, Fakhr-al-Din II took over Beaufort castle, but was defeated
by the Ottomans who destroyed the upper portion. The earthquake causes further damage to the
structure and the ruins become a quarry and a shelter for sheep.
1837 - 1840
Italy
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Naples and Turin are the first Italian towns to have gas street lightning.
1837
Greece
Fine And Applied Arts
Athens School of the Fine Arts is established with three departments: the School of Crafts, School of
Industrial Crafts and the School of Fine Arts.
1837
Greece
Rediscovering The Past
The Archaeological Society of Athens is established. Its aim is to encourage archaeological-excavation
management of antiquities in Greece.
1837
Greece
Reforms And Social Changes
The University of Athens opens. It is the first university to be established in the eastern Mediterranean.
1837
Egypt
Reforms And Social Changes
The year sees the founding of Egypt’s oldest commercial science study centre, when the School of
Account is established during Muhammad ‘Ali’s Era.
1837
Spain
Economy And Trade
The feudal system had been abolished under the Cádiz Constitution of 1812 but not completely enacted
until 1837.
1837 - 1844
Spain
Economy And Trade
First state confiscation and sale of Church properties known, after the minister who developed the law,
as Desamortización de Mendizábal (Mendizábal's Disentailment) to fund the Carlist war.
1837
Turkey
Cities And Urban Spaces
The first blueprints for a new Istanbul are prepared by Helmuth von Moltke, a general in the Ottoman
army working for its modernisation, under direct orders from Mustafa Reşid Paşa.
1838 - 1847
United Kingdom
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The financial success of the Stockton and Darlington Railway encourages large-scale investment in
railways, leading to massive growth in the network. The many passengers are entertained on their
journeys with inexpensive books, such as John Murray’s “Reading for the Rail” series.
1838
Serbia
Political Context
Founding of Belgrade University.
1838
Portugal
Rediscovering The Past
Auto de Gil Vicente written by Almeida Garrett (1799–1854). The plot revives the 16th-century court of
King Manuel I where a play by Gil Vicente (founder of Portuguese modern theatre) is performed during
the celebrations for the marriage of his daughter Princess Beatriz.
1838
Portugal
Travelling
Building of Pena Palace in Sintra, close to Lisbon, begins. This eclectic summer residence, commissioned
by King Fernando II, combines Neo-Manueline, Neo-Islamic and Neo-Renaissance styles. The use of the
Islamic decorative influences in a royal palace contributes to the Portuguese society’s acknowledgement
of its Islamic past.
1838
Turkey
Political Context
Founding of the Ministry of Finance and formation of Sublime Council for Judicial Ordinances. The title
“grand vizier” becomes “prime minister".
1838
Turkey
Rediscovering The Past
Sultan Mahmud II gave some parts of the bas reliefs of the temple of Assos to France and he also
authorises French archaeologist Charles Texier (1802–71) to take away parts of the frieze from the
temple of Artemis in Magnesia ad Meandrum.
1839
Italy
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
First Italian railway line (Napoli–Portici, 8 km). In the following years, other railway lines are inaugurated
in other Italian states, e.g. Milano–Monza (1840), Pisa-Livorno (1844), Padova–Venezia (1846), Torino–
Moncalieri (1848). Political fragmentation is an obstacle to the construction of long railway lines.
1839
United Kingdom
Reforms And Social Changes
The British Ambassador in Constantinople, Stratford Canning, has been credited with influencing the
reforms in Turkey during the 19th century, in particular the decree of 1839, initiating a programme of
liberal reform in the Ottoman Empire. Some of the changes are superficial, but nonetheless highly visible,
such as the adoption of Western dress and titles. Other changes are seen in the culmination of social
transformations within the Empire.
1839
United Kingdom
Political Context
British control of India is driven by trade. Steamships require fuelling stations. To this purpose Aden is
occupied and controlled imperially from India for a century. Most British control of the Middle East is
indirect and informal. Aden becomes a Crown Colony, with partial control of the Hinterland.
1839
Portugal
Travelling
Silva Porto, born in poverty in Portugal, trader, farmer and explorer, settles in Bié, Angola, from where
he, with his pombeiros (long-distance trade agents), tours Central Africa between 1839 and 1890. The
descriptions of his travels that he sent to Lisbon became legendary and a precious source of data.
1839 - 1861
Turkey
Political Context
Lebanon
Cities And Urban Spaces
Reign of Sultan Abdülmecid.
1839
The Jesuits come to Beirut and build a modest school.
1839
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
February: A plan for the modernisation of general education is approved.
1839
Turkey
Political Context
3 November: Mustafa Reşid Paşa declares the Imperial Rescript of Gülhane (the beginning of the
Tanzimat reforms), granting basic rights to Ottoman subjects and declaring a policy of state reform.
These reforms included the "fair and public trial[s] of all accused regardless of religion”, the creation of a
system of "separate competences, religious and civil”, and the validity of non-Muslim testimony.
1840 - 1880
Tunisia
Rediscovering The Past
Abbot Bourgade and Father Delattre excavate the Punic and Roman ruins of Carthage and then set up
the first archaeological collections of the Saint Louis Museum in Carthage and the Alaoui Museum in
Bardo.
1840 - 1855
Tunisia
Travelling
Khayr al-Din, the reforming minister of Tunisia, conducts various missions in Europe and to the Sublime
Porte (Sublime Gate), the honorific title used for Istanbul during the Ottoman Empire.
1840
Romania
Economy And Trade
Austrian engineers Karol and Rafael Hoffmann and Carol Maderspach initiate the extraction of coal in the
Jiu Valley (south Transylvania), which was and still is the main coal-mining region of Romania.
Middle of the 19th century
Romania
Migrations
The mid-19th century is the beginning of Italian immigration in the Romanian countries. For 1868, the
presence of approximately 600 Italian workers in Romania is documented. Italian intellectuals and artists
also settle in Romania, such as composer, director and music professor Alfons Castaldi.
1840
Romania
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Top hats begin to be worn in the United Principalities, where they were called joben, from the name of
Jobin, the French merchant who first sold them in Bucharest.
About 1860
France
Migrations
Massive rural exodus to Paris, in particular farmers from the Auvergne region.
1840 - 1841
Austria
Political Context
Austria cooperates in a settlement to the Turkish–Egyptian crisis of 1840, sending intervention forces to
conquer the Ottoman fortresses of Saida (Sidon) and St Jean d’Acre, and concluding with the Dardanelles
Treaty signed at the London Straits Convention of 1841.
1840 - 1890
United Kingdom
Cities And Urban Spaces
This half century is a period of great rebuilding and redesign in London and other British cities – of
churches, public buildings, and housing with slum clearance. The building boom extends to the cities of
the British Empire and especially in India. British architects study Islamic architecture and its influence
can be seen in many British buildings. British architects also practise in the major Levantine commercial
cities, such as the Crimean Memorial Church in Constantinople (G. E. Street) and St Mark’s Church in
Alexandria (J. W. Wild).
1840s
United Kingdom
Migrations
Aden becomes a British Crown Colony in 1839 administered (until 1937) not from London but from India.
Indians migrating to practise trade and the professions help to duplicate what is happening in India,
albeit in a smaller way, in the Gulf and Iraq.
1840s
United Kingdom
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Western classical music penetrates the courtly circles of the Ottoman Empire. The imperial Ottoman
family includes composers, such as Sultan ‘Abd al-‘Aziz who composes dance music. On a visit to London
in 1867, the band of the Grenadier Guards plays one of the Sultan’s own compositions at a reception for
him.
1840
Lebanon
Political Context
Conflicts between the Druze and the Maronite Christians explode. A Maronite revolt against the feudal
class erupts, lasting till 1858.
1840
Turkey
Political Context
After his term as governor in Samos, Kostaki Musurus Paşa, a Phanariot Greek becomes the first
Ottoman envoy to independent Athens (1840–47) followed by Vienna (1848) and London (1851–55).
1840 - 1880
Germany
Cities And Urban Spaces
Development of a railway network across the whole of Germany, much of which still exists today. The
most important stations are developed during this period, including: Berlin Ostbahnhof (1842), Nürnberg
Central Station (1844), Duisburg Central Station (1846) and Munich Central Station (1849).
Around 1850 - Around 1900
Germany
Cities And Urban Spaces
Development of the urban district known as the “Ruhrpott” from where, by around 1850, many factories
operated (known particularly for coal mining). Due to rapid urbanisation and lack of housing several
important cities expanded rapidly at this time, including Duisburg and Dortmund. The railway network
reached the “Ruhrpott” in 1900.
1840
Turkey
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
23 October: The Ottoman Ministry of Post is established in Istanbul.
1840
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
7 February: The tax system is reorganised.
1840
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
12 October: The Ministry of Post is established.
1840
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
Official recognition of the Mâli Takvim (Rumi calendar) as the second calendar system alongside the Hijra
calendar.
1840
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
The first mixed courts are introduced to hear civil and criminal cases involving Muslims and non-Muslims.
1840
Turkey
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
3 July: The first newspaper in Ottoman Turkish published by a private individual, Cerîde-I Havâdis
(Journal of News), begins to appear in İstanbul as a weekly, published by an English journalist, William
Churchill.
1841
United Kingdom
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
William Henry Fox Talbot announces his calotype photography, which, using a developing agent,
drastically reduces exposure time. A negative image is created, from which it is possible to produce
countless positive images. Talbot is keen to apply the technique to archaeological objects, and
photography is then used increasingly for recording objects and sites.
1841
France
Reforms And Social Changes
Law of 22 March 1841, inspired by the work of Louis-René Villermé: the Act prohibits the employment of
children younger than eight years. It limits the working day to eight hours for ages 8–12 and twelve
hours for ages 12–16. Night work (9 p.m.–5 a.m.) is prohibited for anyone under 13 years; and for those
who are older two hours is to be paid as three.
1841
Lebanon
Economy And Trade
Teams of spinners are brought from France to train young women. This was a real social revolution in
this rural and traditional part of the country. According to G. Ducousso’s book The Silk Industry in Syria
and Lebanon (1912), the French Consul in Beirut counted no fewer than 183 spinning mills in Lebanon.
1841
Greece
Economy And Trade
The National Bank of Greece is founded.
1841
United Kingdom
Economy And Trade
The Ottoman Bank is founded in this year, registered in London, to channel overseas investment in the
Ottoman Empire.
1841
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The leading roles in Giselle, a ballet by Adolphe Adam are played by Carlotta Grisi and Lucien Petipa.
1841 - 1844
Germany
Travelling
The Berlin Zoological Gardens was established in 1841 and opened to the public in 1844. The oldest zoo
in Germany, today, it hosts more visitors than any zoo in Europe (around 3 million visitors per year).
1841
Turkey
Political Context
13 July: The Straits Convention, signed by the Ottoman Empire and the great powers, prohibits foreign
warships from entering the Bosphorus or the Dardanelles.
1842
Tunisia
Reforms And Social Changes
Educational reform and restructuring of the Zaytuna Mosque through the introduction of new disciplines
and incentives for teachers in Tunisia.
1842
Austria
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Wiener Philharmoniker is founded. It becomes one of the most famous orchestras in the world.
1842
Austria
Reforms And Social Changes
Child labour under 12 years of age is outlawed in Austria.
1842
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Triumph of Nabuccodonosor by Giuseppe Verdi (1831–1901) at La Scala Theatre (Milan): it marks the
appearance of a new operatic style, in which both voice and music show an entirely new heroic passion
and strength.
1842
Italy
Travelling
A seaside hostel is opened in Viareggio (Tuscany) for the treatment of children affected by tuberculosis
(the first of its kind in Italy). In Tuscany, experiments of “marine therapy” for children started in the
1820s. By 1882, 21 seaside hostels for medical purposes are active in Italy.
1842
United Kingdom
Political Context
Evangelists in Britain and Germany found the Jerusalem Protestant bishopric. There is an idea of
converting Jews – the first bishop is a converted Jew – and the bishopric establishes a British cultural and
educational interest in the Levant. It also stimulates archaeological work.
1842
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Fine And Applied Arts
The portrait of Gjurchin Kokale, founder of the Church of St George in Lazaropole, is painted inside the
church by Dicho Krstevic Zograph. It is one of the earliest known portraits in Macedonia. In 1854 this
prolific artist painted the icon of Archpriest Samoil from the Treskavec Monastery near Prilep.
1842 - 1851
Portugal
Political Context
The period of Cabralismo, an authoritarian regime ruled by conservative Bernardo Costa Cabral who
rehabilitates the 1826 Constitutional Charter but promoting the public infrastructures and fiscal code
revision. Upper middle class and aristocracy regain state control and former privileges. Popular rebellions
lead to the fall of his government.
1842
Portugal
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Daguerreotype starts to be used in Portugal two years after its invention in France and is mostly used in
commercial portrait lithographs. The oldest ones still existing in Portugal reproduce the Palace (Paços) of
Coimbra University in 1842. The University is at the time the major centre for the dissemination of
scientific knowledge.
1842 - 1846
Germany
Rediscovering The Past
The Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius is appointed director of an expedition to Egypt by Friedrich Wilhelm
IV.
1843 - 1870
United Kingdom
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Invention of and improvements to the rotary printing press allows for mass production of newspapers
and books. The public are eager to read about the latest archaeological discoveries.
1843
Romania
Fine And Applied Arts
Carol Popp de Szathmari, the most important Romanian photographer of the 19th century (born in Cluj,
Transylvania), moves to Bucharest, where he opens a photo studio.
1843
Austria
Reforms And Social Changes
Gas lighting is installed on the streets of Vienna.
1843
Italy
Travelling
First bathing establishment created in Rimini.
1843
Greece
Fine And Applied Arts
The School of the Fine Arts becomes a five-year higher education institution under its director, the
architect Lissandros Kautantzoglou.
1843
Egypt
Cities And Urban Spaces
Muhammad Sharif Pasha builds the Sharif Pasha Palace situated on Kirdassi Street, off Hasan al-Akbar
Street, in Cairo. The Pasha held a number of important posts during the reigns of Muhammad ‘Ali and his
successors.
1843 - 1868
Spain
Political Context
Isabel II comes of age in 1843. During her reign the political parties are divided into liberals and
conservatives. The Church regains its privileges under the 2nd Concordat signed in 1851. The Queen's
rule ends in 1868 with the revolution known as La Gloriosa (the Glorious Revolution).
1843 - 1851
Portugal
Rediscovering The Past
Publication of Romanceiro Português by Almeida Garrett (1799–1854), a two-volume compilation of
popular folktales. Almeida Garrett aimed at the creation of a national literature inspired by local and
regional traditions.
1843
Germany
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Friedrich Gottlob commodifies paper production (the mass production of cheap paper).
1843 - 1876
Germany
Fine And Applied Arts
Formation of the Neues Museum (1843–55), built by Friedrich August Stüler, a follower of K. F. Schinkel.
Stüler and Carl Busse then design the Alte Nationalgalerie (1867–76).
1843
Turkey
Economy And Trade
The first successful attempt to open a modern bank in the Empire. Smyrna Bank is established by foreign
merchants (English, French, Austrian, Dutch, Russian, American, Italian, Danish, Spanish and Greek)
under the Swedish Consulate in Izmir in order to diminish their dependence on other merchants and
bankers. It is closed in the same year for operating without permission.
1844
Morocco
Political Context
The Battle of Isly is fought on 14 August 1844 between the Moroccan army employing an archaic
strategy against professional soldiers trained in the Napoleonic campaigns and armed with batteries of
light guns. The battle ended with the defeat of the Moroccans. The consequences of this defeat were
grave for Morocco. It was the first time the country had lost a battle in more than two centuries, and it
showed Mulay ‘Abd al-Rahman just how weak his army was.
1844
Serbia
Political Context
Serbia’s oldest museum, Museum Serbski, now the National Museum in Belgrade, is founded by the
Minister of Education Jovan Sterija Popović.
1844 - 1846
Spain
Economy And Trade
British interests in raw material – iron and coal – lead to the foundation of the iron and steel industry in
Bilbao and Santander and industrial exploitation of the coal mines in Asturias.
1844
Portugal
Rediscovering The Past
Publication of the novel Eurico,O Presbítero by Alexandre Herculano (1810–77). The story takes place
during the period of the Arab invasion of Visigoth Hispania, led by Tarik in 711.
1844
Portugal
Rediscovering The Past
Frei Luís de Sousa, by Almeida Garrett. A romantic drama on the myth of King Sebastian, killed in the
Battle of Alcacer Quibir, Morocco, in 1578. The myth of a disappeared king who will return to regain
freedom and independence for his people underlies the plot together with the extreme love of Brother
Luís de Sousa for his country.
1844
Portugal
Economy And Trade
Foundation of the National Tobacco Company in Xabregas, Lisbon. Following the 18th-century tendency,
the profits of tobacco manufacturing and trade became the major source of revenue for oligarchic
businessmen (known as the Caixas) seeking its control. The monopoly was rented out by the state,
usually on a triennial base.
1844
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
The first Proletariat uprising, the Weber Rebellion, witnesses 3,000 weavers in Silesia protesting against
inhumane working conditions and exploitation. The uprising is quashed by the Prussian military – which
murders them all.
1844
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
First proletarian uprising: 3000 weavers in Silesia are protesting against the inhumane working
conditions and their exploitation. They are all being killed by the Prussian military.
1844
Turkey
Economy And Trade
Monetary reform. Ottomans accept bimetallism. Lira, mecidiye and kuruş become official units. 100 kuruş
are equal to one Ottoman lira. Silver mecidiyes equal to 20 kuruş are issued.
1844
Turkey
Travelling
June–July: Sultan Abdülmecid visits İzmit, Bursa, Gallipoli and the Aegean Islands.
1845
France
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The First electric telegraph in France between Paris and Rouen.
1845 - 1852
United Kingdom
Migrations
The Great Famine, or “Irish Potato Famine” as it is known, is a period of huge significance in Irish
national history, not least because the country lost about a quarter of its population: a million people
died from starvation and disease and another million emigrated. A number of factors – including
absentee landlords, land acquisitions, the corn laws, anti-Catholic sentiment and crop failures due to
“potato blight” – brought about the famine at a time when around two-fifths of the population were
reliant solely on potatoes.
1846
Tunisia
Reforms And Social Changes
Ahmad Pasha Bey promulgates a decree freeing all black slaves in the country. Everyone born in Tunisia
is declared free regardless of their parents’ origins.
1846
Tunisia
Travelling
Ahmad Pasha Bey is received by King Louis Philippe at the Tuileries Palace. He stays at the Élysée Palace.
He visits the parliament, the Hôtel des invalids, Napoleon’s tomb and the Palace of Versailles.
1846 - 1856
Tunisia
Travelling
A period of intense diplomatic activity between the Regency of Tunis and Western governments, which
sees 20 diplomatic or consular agencies in Europe and the East represent the regency.
1846
Romania
Economy And Trade
The rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia, Mihail Sturdza and Gheorghe Bibescu, sign a convention that
stipulates the abolishment of the customs between the two countries. The convention becomes effective
in January 1847.
1846
Egypt
Travelling
Ibrahim Pasha is received with respect and curiosity when he visits western Europe.
1846 - 1891
Portugal
Cities And Urban Spaces
National Theatre Dona Maria II opens its doors. Inspired by neoclassical style it was built (1842–46) over
the ruins of the former Inquisition headquarters, the Palace of Estaús. The Portuguese royal family as
well as the aristocracy and bourgeoisie attend theatre performances.
1846
Portugal
Economy And Trade
Merger of Banco de Lisboa and the investment company Companhia Confiança Nacional (1844–46)
creating Banco de Portugal, which by 1887 shares the right to issue banknotes with other institutions. By
1891, Banco de Portugal becomes the sole issuer of bank notes for the mainland, the Azores and
Madeira.
1846
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Premiere of the opera La damnation de Faust by Hector Berlioz.
1846
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
A gendarme organisation is formed.
1846
Turkey
May: Sultan Abdülmecid visits Varna.
Travelling
1847 - 1848
Tunisia
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Following creation of, in the Regency of Tunis, the first mail-distribution system, the first aerial telegraph
system is inaugurated connecting the Bardo, official headquarters of the Bey’s government, with Tunis
and La Goulette.
1847
Romania
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The construction of a road to link Wallachia and Transylvania, crossing through the Predeal Pass in the
Southern Carpathians, is begun during the reign of Prince Gheorghe Bibescu.
1847
Austria
Reforms And Social Changes
Foundation of the Academy of Science in Vienna.
1847 - 1848
Italy
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
First Italian telegraph line (Florence–Pisa–Livorno).
1847
Turkey
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
American John Lawrence Smith, an agricultural chemist and mineralogist in Ottoman employ,
demonstrates the electric telegraph invented by Samuel Morse in an elaborate presentation to Sultan
Abdülmecid and his officials. The sultan bestows on Morse the prestigious Nishan-ı İftihar (Order of Glory
of the Empire), Morse’s first official honour.
1847
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
September: First government secondary schools (rüşdiyye mektebi) are established.
1847
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
Publication of the first government yearbook (salnâme).
1848 - 1849
Romania
Political Context
Revolution in the Romanian countries: in Wallachia and Moldavia revolutionaries demand their countries’
right to self-determination, while in Transylvania Romanians want equal rights to those of the Hungarians
and Germans.
1848
Romania
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The premiere at the National Theatre in Iaşi of the first Romanian operetta, Baba Hârca, with a script by
poet Matei Millo and music composed by Alexandru Flechtenmacher.
1848
Lebanon
Travelling
Established by Congregational and Presbyterian American missionaries, the National Evangelical Church
of Beirut is the oldest and largest of nine congregations situated outside Beirut.
1848
Austria
Reforms And Social Changes
Silesian Deputy Hans Kudlich introduces legislation to abolish the enforced servitude of peasants in the
Reichstag.
1848 - 1849
Austria
Political Context
Revolution in Austria-Hungary and northern Italy.
1848
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Donizetti dies and Verdi remains the only heir to the Italian melodrama, which is increasingly identified
with the Risorgimento movement, becoming a “sound track” of the Italian fight for independence and
unification.
1848 - 1849
Italy
Political Context
Uprisings in different parts of Italy demand constitutional rule and national unification. In Rome and
Venice, short-lived republics are proclaimed. King Carlo Alberto (Kingdom of Sardinia) grants a
constitution and wages war against the Austrian Empire, but he is defeated.
1848
Serbia
Political Context
The Serbian uprising against the Austrian monarchy sees the formation of Srpsko Vojvodstvo (the
Serbian Duchy). Stevan Knićanin-Vojvoda (military commander) commands Serbian volunteers during
the Hungarian Revolution (1848–49).
1848
Spain
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The first railway in Spain is built between Barcelona and Mataró for the transport of goods and
passengers. The first railway built by the Spaniards had been built in Cuba in 1837 linking Havana with
Güines.
1848 - 1856
Portugal
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Boavista gas factory, owned by Companhia Lisbonense de Iluminação a Gás, begins to operate Lisbon's
lightning network. Fearing people's reaction to a gas factory in an urban area, a styled façade is erected
in 1856 to disguise it.
About 1850 - About 1900
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Realist movement, which emerges as a reaction to Classicism, focuses on the faithful representation
of daily life in both town and country and particularly affects literature and painting.
1848
France
Fine And Applied Arts
The "special national school for design, mathematics, architecture and ornamental sculpture applied to
the industrial arts", which succeeds the Royal school of design founded in the 18th century, becomes the
École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs in 1877.
1848
France
Political Context
Revolution of February 1848: Louis-Philippe abdicates and the Republic is proclaimed.
1848 - 1852
France
Political Context
During the Second Republic a number of social reforms take place, including universal male suffrage and
the abolition of slavery. In December 1848 Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte (grand-nephew of Napoleon I)
takes over as president of the Republic and reverts to a more conservative political position. He sets up
an authoritarian regime by coup d'état (December 1851), and declares himself emperor in 1852.
1848
Germany
Political Context
The German National Assembly meets in Frankfurt.
1848
Germany
Political Context
Establishment of the first parliament in German history (at the Paulskirche, Frankfurt am Main), and
elaboration of the German Imperial Constitution.
1848 - 1849
Germany
Political Context
The Pre-March Revolution involves a series of protests, gatherings and disturbances, but by July 1849
the Bundes troops are victorious and the revolution fails.
1848 - 1890
Germany
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The era of Realism in literature (i.e. the works of Raabe, Fontane and Busch) is characterised by exact
descriptions of reality, subjective narration and irony.
1848
Germany
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish the Communist Manifesto.
Reforms And Social Changes
1848
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
Liberal regimes, now with seats in government, herald a series of liberal reforms in all German states.
After riots in Berlin, Prussian King Frederick William IV promises liberal and national reforms.
1848
Turkey
Cities And Urban Spaces
Ebniye Nizamnamesi (Regulation for Buildings) issued.
1848
Turkey
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The earliest Turkish textbook on chemistry, Usul-i Kimya (Elements of chemistry), is written by Mehmed
Emin Derviş Paşa, a graduate of the Military Engineering School in Istanbul, based on the chemistry
books he used during his studies in the École des Mines in Paris.
1849 - 1850
Austria
Migrations
The revolutionary General Józef Zachariasz Bem flees Austria for the Ottoman Empire along with 6,000
Hungarian soldiers. He becomes a Turkish General and in 1850 suppresses a Muslim pogrom against the
Christian minority in Aleppo.
1849
Portugal
Economy And Trade
The Tribunal de Contas (Supreme Audit Institution), the independent financial control department, is
separated from the financial administration. The public accounts are verified by the Tribunal de Contas
and approved by Parliament.
1849
Germany
Political Context
The German National Assembly approves the Constitution of the German Empire.
1849
Germany
Political Context
The Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm IV refuses the German Imperial Crown.
1849
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
Popular movements in Saxony, Baden and the Pfalz attempt to put into effect the Constitution of the
Empire, but they are defeated by Prussian troops.
1849
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
The Teachers’ Seminary is founded in İstanbul.
1849
Turkey
Rediscovering The Past
English archaeologist and politician Austen Henry Layard (1817–94) publishes Nineveh and its Remains.
1850
Romania
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
January: the birth of Mihai Eminescu, who is considered to be the most important Romanian poet of the
19th century.
1850 - 1860
France
Economy And Trade
Foundation of numerous banks: the Crédit Industriel et Commercial (1859), the Credit Lyonnais (1863)
and the Société générale (1864).
1850
France
Migrations
First wave of Italian immigrants to France.
1850 - 1860
France
Rediscovering The Past
Excavations of the French scholar, archaeologist and Egyptologist Auguste Mariette (1821–81) in Egypt.
1850 - 1900
Austria
Economy And Trade
The majority of fezzes worn as modern headgear in the Ottoman Empire during the second half of the
19th century are produced in the Austrian Empire.
1850
Austria
Travelling
Archduke Maximilian visits Asia Minor and Egypt.
1850 - 1855
Italy
Fine And Applied Arts
The painters of the School of Posillipo (Naples) develop a new style of more natural observation of
landscapes and everyday life.
1850s - 1860s
Italy
Travelling
Mountaineering on the Alps becomes a sport and tourism activity. Local people had always climbed
mountains. Since the end of the 18th century, scientists had started exploring the Alps for scientific
purposes (Mont Blanc was first climbed in 1786). In 1857, Irish mountaineer John Ball starts climbing the
Dolomites and writing guidebooks about them.
1850s
United Kingdom
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Britain also holds a stake in the development of railways in the Near East. Egypt, as part of a global
transport network and under British sponsorship, has a railway network before Norway does.
1850s
United Kingdom
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Crimean War brings thousands of British soldiers to Constantinople. After the war, certain
innovations can be traced back to it – such as beards! There is a craze for things all things Turkish; the
Turkish commander even becomes something of a folk hero in Britain.
1850 - 1900
Austria
Migrations
During the second half of the 19th century the mass migration of Czech-speaking farmers to Vienna to
work for Viennese industries finally amounts to half the Viennese population.
1850
Spain
Fine And Applied Arts
First photography of Arab monuments such as the Alhambra and the Great Mosque of Córdoba. The
development of photography sheds new light on these monuments and these first photographs are
important documents on Arab remains in Spain.
1850 - 1860s
Spain
Fine And Applied Arts
Rafael Contreras begins to make models from the Alhambra that are shown in international exhibitions
and acquired by many museums and schools of design. The models are used as examples of wall
decoration in the Alhambresque style.
1850 - 1929
Spain
Fine And Applied Arts
The style of the Neo-Mudéjar artistic movement is used in buildings and artworks, especially ceramic and
metalware. These pieces are displayed in different international exhibitions (e.g. London 1851, Paris
1878).
1850
Spain
Rediscovering The Past
First photography of the Islamic monuments and remains in Spain such as the Great Mosque of Córdoba
and the Alhambra palace.
2nd half of the 19th century
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Parnassism is a French literary style that grew up as a reaction to Romanticism. Advocating “Art for art's
sake”, it rejected lyricism: Leconte de Lisle and José-Maria de Heredia are notable poets of this style.
Circa 1850 - Circa 1900
France
Fine And Applied Arts
The Realist movement, which emerges as a reaction to Classicism, focuses on the faithful reproduction of
the “reality” of daily life in both town and country. This movement, which affected literature and painting
in particular, shocked some people. Orientalism (i.e. the painters Fromentin, Ingres and Gérôme)
favoured subjects inspired by travel to the Near East.
1850
France
Fine And Applied Arts
A Burial At Ornans by the Realist painter Gustave Courbet.
1850s - 1870s
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The crinoline underskirt increases the volume of women’s skirts.
1850 - 1900
Germany
Fine And Applied Arts
The painting by Max Liebermann, Die Gänserupferinnen (1872), exemplifies Impressionism in art at this
time.
1850 - 1870
Germany
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Surveillance, spying and so on, creates fear and leads to political persecution of musicians (e.g. both
Richard Wagner and Gottfried Semper are forced into exile). Music of this era falls under the label “late
Romanticism” (i.e. when emotional expression and freedom of style are enhanced), and new genres are
born; i.e. symphonic poetry (Franz List) and musical drama (Richard Wagner’s Tristan and Isolde, 1865).
1851
United Kingdom
Rediscovering The Past
When the Great Exhibition of All Nations opens in London, as well as showcasing technological progress,
it also exposes the public to Egyptian, Mesopotamian and other ancient cultures, thus fostering an
appetite for museums.
1851
Romania
International Exhibitions
Wallachia and Moldavia participate in the Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations,
organised at the Crystal Palace in London. Their products are exhibited in the Ottoman pavilion.
1851 - 1895
Jordan
Reforms And Social Changes
Between 1866 and 1871 two administrative districts are created: qada (district) of Ajlun and qada of alSalt. Ajlun is part of Hawran mutasarrifiyyat (province), while al-Salt is part of al-Balqa mutasarrifiyyat.
In 1872 a new administrative region comprising al-Salt, Karak and al-Jawf (Tafila is integrated in 1892)
is formed with Ma’an as the administrative centre, subsequently replaced by Karak in 1895.
1851 - 1853
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Verdi composes the so-called popular trilogy (Rigoletto, Il trovatore and La traviata), consolidating his
fame and reaching full musical and dramatical maturity.
1851
Greece
International Exhibitions
Greece is represented by a small stand at the Great Exhibition in London among the Levantine states.
1851
United Kingdom
International Exhibitions
At the Great Exhibition of this year are some examples of Islamic design influenced by Owen Jones, who
had “discovered” Al-Andalus (Andalusian) Islamic architecture. Jones was brother-in-law to the architect
J. W. Wild who designed St Mark’s Church in Alexandria.
1851
Spain
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
While the Barcelona–Mataró railway is under construction, another line is in progress between Madrid and
Aranjuez, opened in 1851, and a third between Langreo and Gijón, in Asturias. By the end of the 19th
century most Spanish cities will be linked by train.
1851
Portugal
Rediscovering The Past
Lendas e Narrativas published by Alexandre Herculano (1810–77), a collection of historical short stories
set in the context of medieval times and the “Reconquista” process, the Iberian Christian military
movement to recover Muslim-occupied territories (10th–15th centuries).
1851 - 1868
Portugal
Political Context
Regeneration, led mainly by Minister Fontes Pereira Melo (who gives the period name – Fontism) is a
peaceful political cycle of global innovation started in 1851. The kingdom is tired of political unrest.
Conditions are created for the middle classes and foreign investors to support economic expansion, the
development of infrastructure and industrialisation.
1851
Portugal
Economy And Trade
Launch of an ambitious plan of modernisation and the stable Regeneration period mostly led by Minister
Fontes Pereira de Melo (1819–87) (and named Fontism after him) Infrastructure building, industrial
production and business laws are promoted. Porto wine production and trade thrives and exports
increase until the 1860s.
1851
Portugal
International Exhibitions
At “The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations“ in London, Portugal shows 1,293
products from almost all the regions.
1851
Germany
International Exhibitions
The First World Fair is opened by Prince Albert in London.
1851
Turkey
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Ottoman steamship company Şirket-i Hayriyye is founded. It provides regular and rapid
transportation from Istanbul to points along the Bosporus, replacing the oar-drawn kayıks that had
monopolised this traffic since the 18th century.
1851
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
Ottoman Academy of Sciences (Encümen-i Danış) opens.
1852 - 1870
France
Cities And Urban Spaces
Georges Haussmann’s works in Paris cover all areas of city planning: streets and boulevards,
reconstruction of buildings, parks and street furniture, drainage networks and water supply facilities,
equipment and monuments.
1852
Italy
Political Context
Cavour (Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, 1810–61), the architect of the diplomatic strategies that
allowed Italian unification, becomes prime minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia (he will remain prime
minister until his death).
1852
Austria
Reforms And Social Changes
Enactment of a code for Craft Guild regulations offers workers some protection in the Austrian monarchy.
1852
Portugal
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
13 December: Under the framework of the Regeneration modernisation, the adoption of the decimal
metric system based on the legal mètre of France is decreed by Queen Maria II. This decree establishes a
ten-year deadline for its full enforcement, but the whole process will take longer than that.
1852
Portugal
Reforms And Social Changes
Ato Adicional de 1852 (Additional Act) abolishes the death penalty for political crimes, which had not
been enforced since 1834. In 1867, in the reign of King Luís I, the abolition of the death penalty is
extended to all kinds of crime, except for those under military jurisdiction. Only in 1911 will total
abolition be proclaimed by the Republican regime.
1852 - 1870
France
Political Context
After an authoritarian period (1852–60), during which time freedoms are severely restricted and political
opponents are forced into exile, the Second Empire is declared and the political climate becomes more
liberal and the economy grows.
1852
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
The steamship company Şirket-i Hayriyye is founded.
1852
Turkey
Rediscovering The Past
A museum of ancient costumes (Elbise-i Atika) is opened in Hippodrome (İstanbul) where old costumes
of Janissaries are exhibited on mannequins.
1853
Romania
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
14 February: installation of the first electric telegraph lines in the Romanian territories, connecting Iaşi
with Cernăuţi.
1853
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Political Context
A Treaty of Maritime Peace in Perpetuity is concluded between Britain and the Trucial Coast rulers. Britain
assumes the right to police maritime peace and commits to protecting the sheikhdoms from external
interference and attack.
1853 - 1890
Lebanon
Economy And Trade
Antun Bey Najjar, a merchant who made his fortune in Constantinople, builds Khan Antun Bey in 1853. It
becomes a great business center and the building served for many institutions such as Beirut’s foreign
consulates, the Ottoman administration, postal services, merchants’ offices and Beirut’s first bank,
Imperial Ottoman.
1853 - 1856
Greece
Political Context
The Crimean War starts in October 1853. On one side is the Russian Empire and on the other the
Ottoman Empire, the British Empire, France and the Kingdom of Sardinia. Greece participates with a
volunteer corps of 1,000 men as one of Russia’s few allies.
1853
Spain
Migrations
The ban on emigration to America is lifted. Under the Constitution of 1869 free emigration for all the
inhabitants is recognised on payment of a fee, which remains until 1873.
1853
Portugal
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
1 July: Portugal starts to use the first adhesive postal stamps on letters, postcards and parcels, in the
reign of Queen Mary II. Bearing the Queen’ s effigy they are inspired by the first British stamp.
1853
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of Victor Hugo’s Les Châtiments.
1853 - 1856
Turkey
Political Context
War between Russia and the Ottoman Empire and its allies France, UK and Piedmont-Savoy. The
Crimean War is a consequence of rivalry over the Eastern Question and France’s support of Catholic
claims and Russia’s support of Orthodox claims to control the holy sites in Jerusalem. Russia seeks to
exploit Ottoman political weakness to gain diplomatic rights for Orthodox subjects of the Empire. Peace
established by the Treaty of Paris (1856).
1853
Germany
Economy And Trade
Levi Strauss & Co founds the first company to manufacture blue jeans.
1853
Lebanon
Cities And Urban Spaces
Antun Bey Najjar, a merchant who made his fortune in Constantinople, builds Khan Antun Bey in 1853. It
becomes a great business centre and the building is used by many institutions such as Beirut’s foreign
consulates, the Ottoman administration, postal services, merchants’ offices and Beirut’s first bank,
Imperial Ottoman.
1853 - 1856
Turkey
Migrations
The Crimean War causes an exodus of the Crimean Tatars, about 200,000 of whom move to the Ottoman
Empire in continuing waves of immigration.
1854
Tunisia
Travelling
A contingent of the Tunisian army is called upon to participate alongside the Ottoman Empire, France and
England in the Crimean War.
1854
Romania
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
20 August: inauguration of the first railway of Romania, linking Baziaș to Oravița (in Banat). Used at first
to transport coal, it was opened for passenger transportation in 1856. In the United Principalities, the
first railway line, built by the British company J.T. Barkley and J. Staniforth, was inaugurated 31 October
1869.
1854 - 1870
France
Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of workers’ housing includes the utopian city of Familistère de Guise in Aisne (also called
the “Social Palace”), set up by Jean-Baptiste André Godin between 1859 and 1870.
1854
Italy
Fine And Applied Arts
Leopoldo Alinari, with his brothers Romualdo and Giuseppe, opens in Florence one of the first
photography workshope – Fratelli Alinari.
1854
United Kingdom
Political Context
Russia’s expansion to the Black Sea and the Caucasus encroach on, seize and annex Ottoman
possessions. Britain and France support Ottoman resistance, targeting the Russian naval base in Crimea.
Britain provides military and naval support to the Ottoman armed force.
1854
Austria
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Semmering Railway is the first mainline railway to pass through mountainous territory.
1854
Egypt
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Sa‘id Pasha’s accession to the Viceroyalty of Egypt provides French businessman Ferdinand de Lesseps
new impulse to develop the Suez Canal.
1854
Germany
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Heinrich Göbel invents the light bulb.
1854
Turkey
Economy And Trade
Ottoman Empire obtains its first foreign loan.
1854
Turkey
Rediscovering The Past
English amateur archaeologist Frank Calvert (1828–1908) begins excavations in Troy.
1854
Turkey
Political Context
The Tanzimat Council appoints a City Ordering Commission (Intizam-ı Şehir Heyeti), comprising Ottoman
and foreign residents, charged with developing new regulation to transform the structure of Instanbul
into a municipal government. It recommends establishment of a commission to enforce urban regulations
and improve the city's physical make-up, financed through a separate tax structure.
1855 - 1856
Romania
Reforms And Social Changes
In Moldavia (22 December 1855) and then in Wallachia (20 February 1856) a law for the emancipation of
the gypsy slaves of private owners is passed. Gypsies belonging to the church and to the state had
already been liberated.
1855
France
International Exhibitions
The first World Fair/Expo (Exposition universelle) of industrial products takes place at the ChampsElysées, Paris, from 15 May to 15 November. More than five million visitors attend and 25 states and
their colonies are represented.
1855
France
Travelling
From 1855, the spa towns of eastern France are developed: at Vittel, and at Contrexéville near
Plombieres-les-Bains in the Pyrenees, where Napoleon III stays.
1855
Lebanon
Reforms And Social Changes
A school is built by the Jesuits in Ghazir (Kisruwan district).
1855
Italy
Fine And Applied Arts
The Caffé Michelangelo in Florence becomes a meeting place for artists and republican intellectuals close
to Giuseppe Mazzini, in opposition to academic and official environments.
1855
Italy
Rediscovering The Past
Inauguration of the Egyptian Museum in Florence. The bulk of its holdings are the items collected by
Ippolito Rossellini during the 1828–29 Franco-Tuscan expedition to Egypt, together with the Egyptian
antiquities that the Medici family had collected during the 18th century.
1855
Italy
Political Context
The Kingdom of Sardinia participates in the Crimean war as part of the Anglo-French alliance against
Russia.
1855
Spain
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The railways law, Ley General de Caminos de Hierro (Law of the Iron Roads) establishes principles for the
railway and its public and private development. It specifies a rail width that is wider than the European
rail. Its continued use still causes problems for rail connections between Spain and France today.
1855
Spain
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The government introduces a law establishing the telegraphic network in Spanish territory, marking the
beginning of telecommunications in Spain. Its objective is to link every important city and the provincial
capitals.
1855 - 1867
Spain
Economy And Trade
The Madoz law introduced in 1855 provides for the state confiscation and sale of the rest of the Church
properties and also of municipal properties.
1855
Portugal
International Exhibitions
Portugal is present at “Exposition Universelle des Produits de l’Agriculture, de l’Industrie et des BeauxArts”, with 441 stands, exhibiting agricultural products and commodities. King Pedro V (1837–61) has a
pivotal role in boosting the national presence.
1855
Lebanon
Cities And Urban Spaces
A school is built by the Jesuits in Ghazir (Kisruwan district).
1855
Turkey
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The earliest railway line within the Empire is opened between Costanta and Cernovoda (in present-day
Romania).
1855
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
9 September: Telegraphic communication is introduced within the empire.
1855
Turkey
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Ahmed Cevdet Paşa, historian, jurist and conservative Tanzimat reformer, completes the first volumes of
Târih-I Cevdet (History of Cevdet), which deals with Ottoman history, 1774–1826.
1856
Romania
Political Context
At the Congress of Paris peace conference, Wallachia and Moldavia are put under the collective guarantee
of the Great Powers (Austria, Russia, Prussia, Piedmont, the UK and France), while remaining under
Ottoman sovereignty. The Russian protectorate over the Romanian countries is ended. Moldavia receives
the southeast of Bessarabia.
1856
Romania
Economy And Trade
The internationalisation of the Danube through the Treaty of Paris has a positive influence on the
development of Romanian commerce.
1856
Morocco
Political Context
In 1856 a treaty is signed, initiated by Britain in order to strengthen its influence over Morocco and to
maintain its naval supremacy in the Mediterranean, which hugely undermines Moroccan sovereignty. This
treaty wrested control over the extent of European penetration away from the governing institution of
Morocco the Makhzen. The advantages gained by European traders, combined with their superior
technique and the quantity of capital behind them, enabled then to monopolise most of the sea trade and
to reduce Moroccan players to mere intermediaries.
1856 - 1860
Spain
Cities And Urban Spaces
Ildefonso Cerdá designs the "extension" of Barcelona in 1859. The orthogonal design of the streets
creates a new neighbourhood: El Ensanche/L’Eixample. The development of wide streets such as
Diagonal or Paseo de Gracia allows a new construction style, Modernismo/Modernisme, with buildings by
Antonio Gaudí and Puig i Cadafalch.
1856
Portugal
Rediscovering The Past
The Portugaliae Monumenta Historica is published. Acknowledged as a historian, Alexandre Herculano is
commissioned by Academia das Ciências de Lisboa to compile this collection of old documents that are at
risk of disappearing and being dispersed throughout convent archives. He undertook this task in 1853–
54.
1856
Portugal
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Inauguration of the first Portuguese railway between Lisbon and Carregado, 36,454 km north of Lisbon,
by King Pedro V and innumerable guests, transported in 14 wooden carriages pulled by two locomotives.
The first train trip lasts 40 minutes. A steam engine is adapted to move the locomotives.
1856
Turkey
Political Context
28 February: Under diplomatic pressure, the Sublime Porte is forced to declare the Imperial Rescript of
Reforms (Islahat Fermanı), giving the empire admission to the Concert of Europe. The Rescript states the
equality of Muslims and non-Muslims before law, the right of non-Muslims to be admitted to government
and military service, and abolition of the poll tax and freedom in education for non-Muslims.
1856
Germany
Rediscovering The Past
A Neanderthal is discovered and examined by Johann Carl Fuhlrott and Hermann Schaaffhausen. Rudolf
Virchow, friends with the famous archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann, claims that the Neanderthal is not
prehistoric man. He is wrong.
1856
Turkey
Cities And Urban Spaces
İstimlak Nizamnamesi (Regulation for Expropriation) issued.
1856
Turkey
Cities And Urban Spaces
Fire in Aksaray district, İstanbul, destroys more than 650 buildings and is a major turning point in the
history of İstanbul’s urban form. Italian architect Luigi Storari is appointed to carry out the re-building of
the area, which is to conform to the new pattern: hence it is to be regular with straight and wide streets.
1856
Turkey
Economy And Trade
The Ottoman Bank is established by English capitalists with capital of ₤500,000 (equivalent to about
US$52 million in 2007). Established on a small scale, the bank becomes an imperial bank by 1863.
1856
Turkey
Political Context
30 March: The Paris Treaty marks the end of the Crimean War (1853–56); the Ottoman Empire is
admitted into the Concert of Europe.
1857
Tunisia
Reforms And Social Changes
Promulgation of the Fundamental Pact by Muhammad Pasha Bey: a “Declaration of Rights” in 11 points.
The pact guarantees Tunisians and also foreigners their civil and political rights, security of persons and
properties, equality before the law, etc.
1857
Tunisia
Political Context
Promulgation of the Fundamental Pact by Muhammad Pasha Bey: a “Declaration of Rights” in 11 points.
The pact guarantees Tunisians and also foreigners their civil and political rights, security of persons and
properties, equality before the law, etc.
1857
Romania
Economy And Trade
March: the first oil refinery in Romania is built by Teodor Mehedinţeanu at Râfov, Prahova.
1857
France
Travelling
Development of resorts and the creation of the seaside resort of Arcachon on the Atlantic in south-west
France, which is inaugurated by Emperor Napoleon III and Empress Eugénie.
1857
France
Travelling
Visit by the Ambassador of Persia, Ferouk Kahn, to Napoleon III.
1857 - 1863
Lebanon
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
A paved road, 6 meters wide, is built between Beirut and Damascus. It facilitates the circulation of the
diligence (the transport company’s horse-drawn vehicles).
1857
Austria
Travelling
Sidi Muhammad Bey of Tunis presents a pair of pistols to Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria.
1857
Spain
Reforms And Social Changes
The Ley de Instrucción Pública (Law of Public Education) establishes three stages of education: primary,
secondary and university. Primary school is compulsory for all children (boys and girls) providing the
basis for combatting illiteracy.
1857
Portugal
Rediscovering The Past
Creation of the Museum of the Geological Commission currently called the Museum of Geology of
Portugal. It is established under the auspices of the Geological Commission from specimens collected by
the Portuguese pioneers of geology Carlos Ribeiro, Nery Delgado, Pereira da Costa, Paul Choffat and
others.
1857
Portugal
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The public telegraph service becomes available, one year after its first official connection between the
Royal Palace and the Parliament. The Morse telegraph system is also used in the international connection
to the telegraphic network in Spain, on the border of Elvas and Badajoz.
1857
France
Publication of Gustave Flaubert’s novel Madame Bovary.
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
1857
France
Fine And Applied Arts
The Angelus, by the Realist painter Jean-François Millet.
1857 - 1812
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
A reaction to Naturalism and Parnassism, Symbolism focuses on the imagination and spirituality. Inspired
by Charles Baudelaire, the aesthetic developed (i.e. Verlaine, Rimbaud and Mallarmé) and triumphed at
the theatre, in music and in the fine arts.
1857 - 1859
Germany
Economy And Trade
The Great Depression, which starts in the United states with the panic of 1857, represents the first global
economic crisis.
1857
Turkey
Migrations
Ottoman Refugee Code/Immigration Law is issued. Forced migrants-turned-settlers are given 70 donums
(about 17 acres) to start farming.
1857
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
March: The Ministry of Public Education is founded.
1858
Tunisia
Cities And Urban Spaces
Under the reign of Muhammad Pasha Bey a major reform is carried out: the capital, Tunis, is established
as a municipal town and a city council is elected. Further municipal towns were created in other parts of
the country: Sfax, Sousse and Kairouan among others.
1858
Romania
Political Context
19 August: the Ottoman Empire, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Piedmont, the UK and France sign the Paris
Convention marking the creation of the United Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, with separate
rulers, legislative and executive powers, and only two institutions in common (Supreme Court of Appeals
and central legislative commission). The convention replaces the Organic Regulations, becoming the new
constitution of the United Principalities.
1858
Romania
Reforms And Social Changes
Through the Paris Convention signed in August 1858 by Russia, the UK, France, Piedmont, Prussia,
Austria and the Ottoman Empire the privileges and ranks of the Romanian aristocracy in Moldavia and
Wallachia are abolished.
1858
France
Travelling
Development of pilgrimages in France, in particular to Lourdes, thanks to faster modes of transport such
as rail.
1858 - 1910
Austria
Cities And Urban Spaces
Vienna’s newly constructed Ringstrasse covers an area of approximately 2,400,000m2 (240 hectares).
1858
Italy
International Exhibitions
An industrial exhibition is held in Turin.
1858 - 1859
Greece
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Telephone communication is established between the cities of Piraeus and Syros (underwater), and
Athens and Patras.
1858
Austria
Economy And Trade
A unified silver currency the Guilder (Gulden) is introduced throughout the Austrian-Hungarian Empire.
1858
Spain
Cities And Urban Spaces
Opening of the Isabel II channel, the water system of Madrid diverting water from the river Lozoya to the
new fountain in San Bernardo street in the centre of Madrid.
1858
Germany
Political Context
King Wilhelm I – later Kaiser (Emperor) of the Second Empire – assumes his regency.
1858 - 1870
Turkey
Cities And Urban Spaces
Planning project for Galata and Karaköy in İstanbul. They are important centres for international trade.
1858
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
6 June: Promulgation of the Land Law regulating private property in agricultural areas.
1859 - 1861
Romania
Political Context
Union of Moldavia and Wallachia. In January 1859 Alexandru Ioan Cuza is elected ruler of both Moldavia
and Wallachia, the double election being recognised by the Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire. In
November 1861 the sultan issues a ferman approving the political and administrative union of Moldavia
and Wallachia during Cuza’s reign. The United Principalities could now have a single government and
parliament.
1859 - 1902
Italy
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
On the eve of Italian national unification, Italy has only 1,758 km of railways (Piedmont 803 km,
Lombardy and Veneto 500 km, Tuscany 256 km, Papal States 101 km, Kingdom of Two Sicilies 98 km).
After unification in 1860, there is great development of railways, which by 1902 total 15,613 km.
1859
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
The Casati Law is passed in the Kingdom of Sardinia (and in 1860 extended to the rest of Italy) that
defines the organisation of the educational system, from primary school to university. The system is
aimed more at educating the ruling elite than the illiterate masses. Humanities are given a much higher
status than scientific and technical education.
1859 - 1861
Italy
Political Context
The Kingdom of Sardinia, backed by France, wages war against the Austrian Empire and annexes Milan.
Pro-unification insurrections in central Italy; Garibaldi leads an expedition of 1,000 volunteers in
Southern Italy. Italy is unified under King Victor Emanuel II (formerly King of Sardinia) as a
constitutional monarchy.
1859 - 1885
Greece
Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of the so-called classical trilogy – namely the Academy of Athens, the National Library of
Greece and the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens – which is designed by the brothers
Theophilus and Christian Hansen.
1859 - 1860
Morocco
Political Context
The Tétouan war of 6 February 1860: the Spanish, seeking to extend the borders of Ceuta and Melilla,
exploit a raid by a neighbouring tribe against a redoubt built outside the walls of Ceuta to launch a major
military action and occupy Tétouan. To end the occupation of Tétouan, the Moroccan state was obliged to
pay a significant sum (20 million douros), which it was unable to do. As a result, it was forced to seek a
foreign loan that it was able to pay back using customs revenues.
1859 - 1873
Morocco
Political Context
Reign of Muhammad Ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman: with a view to overhauling the machinery of administration,
Muhammad IV creates an administrative school, the Madrasa Makhzenia, and proceeds to modernise
financial and tax services. He also thought about modernising the army, both in terms of soldier training
and equipment. This was eventually achieved by his son Mulay al-Hasan I.
1859
Serbia
Political Context
The Hatišerif (Turkish edict) is issued in 1838, allowing the Sovjet (Council) to limit the powers of Prince
Miloš Obrenović. Unwilling to accept this however, Miloš abdicates and leaves Serbia in 1839. Prince
Mihailo Obrenović reigns for a short time before the Karađorđević Dynasty regains the Serbian throne in
1842. The 1858 Svetoandrejska skupština (Assembly convened on St Andrew’s Day) decides on a change
of dynasty, overthrowing Prince Aleksandar Karađorđević and reinstating Miloš Obrenović. A 37-strong
deputation from the Assembly, with a massive, heavily armed entourage, leaves Belgrade for Bucharest
to bring the newly elected prince back to the country, marking the beginning of Miloš’ second, but shortlived reign, which ends when he dies in 1860.
1859 - 1860
Spain
Political Context
War declared on Morocco. Battles of Castillejos (Fnidq) and Wad-Ras. A peace agreement is signed with
the Moroccan Sultan leaving Tetouan under Spanish rule.
1859
Germany
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Johann Phillipp Reis invents the telephone.
1859
Turkey
Cities And Urban Spaces
Sokaklara Dair Nizamname (Regulation for Streets) issued.
1859
Turkey
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
İbrahim Şinasi completes his stage comedy Şâir Evlenmesi (Marriage of a Poet), the first theatre play
written by an Ottoman Turkish author.
1859
Austria
Political Context
Defeat of the Austrians by a French and Sardinian Army at the Battle of Solferino on 24 June sees terrible
losses on both sides.
1859
Austria
Political Context
At the Peace of Zürich (10 November) Austria cedes Lombardy, but not Venetia, to Napoleon III; in turn,
Napoleon hands the province over to the Kingdom of Sardinia.
1860 - 1900
Tunisia
Cities And Urban Spaces
Following development of the Port of La Goulette, new districts relating to trade and industrial activities
are born. The neighbourhood is given the name of “Little Sicily”, which is suggestive of its role as host to
a poor immigrant population mainly from southern Italy.
1860
Tunisia
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The restoration of the Aqueduct of Zaghouan is completed, running water arrives in Tunis.
1860 - 1863
Tunisia
Economy And Trade
Restoration of the Zaghouan Aqueduct, Tunisia’s largest water-service network, allows supply to the
capital and its suburbs.
1860
Romania
Fine And Applied Arts
7 November: on the initiative of painter Gheorghe Panaitescu-Bardasare, a School of Fine Arts and an art
gallery are founded in Iaşi.
1860
France
Travelling
First trip by Napoleon III to Algeria; the second will take place in 1865.
1860s - 1908
Jordan
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
After centuries of neglect the creation of new administrative units late in the 19th century strengthens
the Ottoman presence in Transjordan. This trend materialises in the construction of administrative
buildings in newly established or re-established towns and investment in infrastructure. New towns mean
new roads: Amman, Jerash and Madaba are linked by paved roads and in 1906 Madaba is linked with
Karak. Construction of the Hijaz Railway and lines of communication results in extensive urban
development along the railway. However, it also creates social disparities and tensions.
1860 - 1918
Jordan
Fine And Applied Arts
Newcomers to Transjordan, whether from neighbouring Arab countries such as Syria, Palestine and Hijaz
or from further afield such as Caucasus, bring with them not only artefacts of their home culture,
including personal ornaments, weapons, costumes and treasured items, but also the necessary skills and
social habits that help them to adapt in their new homeland.
1860 - 1921
Jordan
Economy And Trade
Palestinian and Damascene merchants have long-established trade relations with Transjordan villages.
There is a steady trade between al-Salt and Nablus, Karak and Hebron and between Ma’an and Gaza.
Large families of these merchants move to these towns. They build many structures and become major
landowners and form the elite of Transjordan society. These merchants become the dominant economic
force and open up Transjordan to regional trade.
1860 - 1921
Jordan
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Due to the very diverse composition of the Transjordanians with their different backgrounds – Arabs and
non-Arabs, Muslims and Christians, settlers and nomads – Transjordan becomes the melting pot for
different cultures. This is reflected in very diverse cultural artefacts (fashion and costumes, musical
instruments and music, and dances) but more importantly in traditions and social behaviour.
1860 - 1870
Jordan
Reforms And Social Changes
By the 1860s, population density has decreased drastically. The border of the sawn cultivated land had
been pushed westwards under the pressure of the nomadic tribes from the east. Several reasons are
suggested for this decline, including maladministration and the taxation policies of the Ottoman Empire.
Some of the regions south of Ajlun, including Amman area, and along the escarpment of the Jordan
valley were almost completely abandoned. Recovery starts during the last quarter of the 19th century.
1860
Italy
Cities And Urban Spaces
The unification of Italy leads to urban expansion outside the old city walls, which have lost their
defensive value. Medieval urban buildings are often demolished in order to build monumental
architecture.
1860 - 1870
Italy
Fine And Applied Arts
In opposition to academic painting, the Macchiaioli movement (Telemaco Signorini, Vincenzo Cabianca
and Silvestro Lega) experiments with “spot painting”, based on the strong contrast between light and
shadow.
1860
Italy
Political Context
The right to vote is reserved for a small elite of men who have certain levels of income and education:
only 2.2% of the Italians can vote.
1860 - 1865
Greece
Fine And Applied Arts
Both Nikolaos Gyzis and Nikiphoros Lytras win scholarships to the Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Munich.
1860 - 1874
Greece
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Konstantinos Paparrigopoulos writes a five-volume History of the Greek Nation, a highly influential
historiographical work about the continuity of Greek history since antiquity.
1860
Austria
Migrations
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) is born in Moravia; he emigrates from Moravia to Vienna.
1860
Spain
The Manises pottery begins to produce objects in lustreware.
Fine And Applied Arts
1860
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Fine And Applied Arts
The icon “Seven Holy Teachers” (Sedmochislenitzi) is painted by the most significant representative of
Christian religious art in Macedonia, Dicho Krstevic Zograph, at the peak of his creativity. It represents
the Slav missionaries Sts Cyril and Methodius and their disciples Clement, Nahum, Gorazd, Sabbas and
Angelarij in a solo composition. His icons are distinguished by bright colour and baroque features.
1860
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The birth in Prilep of the first Macedonian composer Atanas Badev (d. 1908). He studied music in Russia
and was conductor of several school choirs and of the first city choir in Prilep.
1860 - 1870
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Marko K. Cepenkov (1829–1920) was born in Prilep. Among the greatest collectors of Macedonian oral
folk literature, during the 1860s he was prolific in recording folklore creations. The importance of his
collecting activities lies not only in the volume but also in the diversity of folklore traditions recorded,
including proverbs, sayings, tales, songs, riddles, charms, beliefs, dreams and interpretation, and
children's games.
1860
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Grigor Prlichev's epic poem "The Serdar", written in Greek, wins first prize at the annual poetry
competition held in Athens. Prlichev (1830–93) was born in Ohrid. This prolific Macedonian poet and
translator was a dedicated advocate of introducing the native spoken language in Macedonian schools.
He was referred to as a second Homer, having translated the "Iliad" into the Macedonian language.
1860
Lebanon
Political Context
Yusuf Bek Butros Karam, a Lebanese Maronite born in 1823 fights in the 1860 civil war and leads a
rebellion in 1866-67 against the Ottoman Empire’s rule in Mount Lebanon. His proclamations have been
interpreted as an early expression of Lebanese nationalism.
1860
Lebanon
Political Context
A full-scale war erupts between Maronites and Druze. Napoleon III of France sends 7,000 troops to
Beirut and helps impose a partition: Druze control of the territory is recognised as the fact on the
ground, and the Maronites are forced into an enclave. This is ratified by the Concert of Europe in 1861.
1860
Portugal
Reforms And Social Changes
Under the liberal educational reforms, Lyceu Nacional de Aveiro (Aveiro High School) is the first school in
Portugal to occupy a building designed specifically for this function. Previously schools occupied existing
buildings, often old convents. The school had been created as Colégio de Aveiro in 1848.
1860
Portugal
Travelling
Travelling became a great cultural and social phenomenon with Romanticism. The “Grand Tour” through
the countries of the known world, namely around the Mediterranean, became a means of developing
cultural and social skills. Travel became refined and even a simple journey to the countryside required
such accessories as this travel case for meals.
Circa 1870 - Circa 1900
France
Fine And Applied Arts
Impressionist painters capture the effects of light in outdoor and everyday scenes.
1860 - 1910
Germany
Fine And Applied Arts
Realism (a backlash to both Classicism and Romanticism) is exemplified by French artist Gustave
Courbet’s Die Steinklopfer (1849), although long before then Albrecht Dürer had painted his highly
realistic Junger Feldhase (1502).
1860
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
October: First private newspaper to be published by Turkish journalists,Tercüman-ı Ahvâl, published by
Agah Efendi and İbrahim Şinasi.
1860
Turkey
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
October: Journalists İbrahim Şinasi and Agah Efendi publish the first private Muslim newspaper
Tercümân-ı Ahvâl (Interpreter of Events).
1861
Tunisia
Political Context
Muhammad Sadiq Bey promulgates a constitution limiting his powers. Tunisia’s first constitution is the
culmination of the reformist policies of the 19th-century Husaynid beys.
1861
France
Travelling
Embassy sent by King Mongkut of Siam (now Thailand) to Napoleon III.
1861 - 1921
Italy
Cities And Urban Spaces
Urban growth in Italy: Naples is the biggest city (1861: 447,000; 1921: 772,000), but population growth
is higher in Rome, the “political capital city” (1871: 244,000; 1921: 692,000) and in Milan, the “industrial
capital city” (1861: 96,000; 1921: 719,000). (Rounded to nearest 1,000.)
1861
Italy
International Exhibitions
First Italian National Exhibition of Agricultural and Industrial Products and Fine Arts opens in Florence.
1861 - 1921
Italy
Migrations
The Italian population grows from 22 million in 1861 to almost 33 million in 1901, to 38.4 million in
1921. Part of the increases are due to annexations of new territories. During the same period average
annual migration to European and Mediterranean countries is 99, 000 in the 1860s and170,000 in the
1910s, peaking in the 1900s at 251,000. Average annual migration to non-European countries is 22,000
in the 1860s and 213,000 in the 1910s, peaking in the 1900s at 351,000. (Figures, rounded to the
nearest 1,000, include both permanent and temporary migration.
1861
Italy
Rediscovering The Past
The pre-unification laws on the protection of cultural heritage of the individual Italian states remain in
force even after unification. Until 1902, different Italian regions are thus subject to different disciplines.
1861
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Collection of Macedonian poems compiled by the Miladinov brothers is published in Zagreb. Konstantin
Miladinov (1830–62), a prominent Macedonian poet, folklorist and educator is a major contributor.
Despite a reference to Bulgarian songs in the title, the folk literature recorded by the Miladinovs
originated mostly from the areas of Struga, Ohrid, Prilep, Kukush and Bitola.
1861
Lebanon
Political Context
In the aftermath of the Lebanese civil war in 1860, the Ottoman authorities impose a new system of
government for the mountain districts of Lebanon. Formerly, the region had been divided into two
districts, one with a Maronite Christian administrator and the other with a Druze. The Ottomans combine
them into a single district, known as the mutasarrifiyya.
1861 - 1876
Turkey
Political Context
France
Rediscovering The Past
Reign of Sultan Abdülaziz.
1862
Creation of the Museum of Celtic and Gallo-Roman Antiquities by Napoleon III in Saint-Germain-en-Laye.
1862
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The British India Company establishes a regular steamer service in the Arabian Gulf, first as a mail
service, and later enhanced by cargo and passenger services.
1862
Italy
Economy And Trade
Law on the unification of currencies passed: the lira becomes the Italian currency.
1862
Portugal
International Exhibitions
The “International Exhibition on Industry and Art” in London distinguishes Portugal with 165 Medals of
Honor and 240 mentions.
1862
France
Fine And Applied Arts
The Picnic on the Grass by Édouard Manet marks a transition from Realism to Impressionism
1862
Germany
Political Context
Otto von Bismarck becomes prime minister of Prussia.
1862
Turkey
Travelling
Steamship company Fevâid-I Osmâniyye is founded.
1862
Turkey
Travelling
April: Sultan Abdülaziz visits Egypt.
1863
Romania
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The literary society Junimea, which had an important role in promoting Romanian literature, is founded in
Iaşi. In 1867 it begins publishing a periodical in which the works of Romanian writers appear and also
translations from worldwide literature.
1863
Romania
Reforms And Social Changes
December: the National Gathering of the United Principalities adopts the law through which the land
owned by monasteries (more than a quarter of Romania’s surface) becomes property of the state.
1863 - 1889
Italy
Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of the 167.5 m high Mole Antonelliana in Turin, initially conceived as a synagogue. It soon
becomes the city’s landmark building.
1863 - 1885
Italy
Fine And Applied Arts
Opening of applied art schools, often attached to museums: Industrial Museum of Turin (1863), Artistic
Industrial Museum of Rome (1873), Naples (1882) and Palermo (1885).
1863
Italy
Travelling
The Club Alpino Italiano is founded in Turin. Its goal is “to promote the knowledge of mountains, and
especially of Italian mountains, their ascent and scientific expeditions”. In 25 years, membership reaches
4,500 with 34 local branches. By 1900 it had built 57 mountain huts.
1863
Austria
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Bedrich Smetana's (1824–1884) opera Verkaufte Braut (The Bartered Bride) had its first performance in
Prague.
1863
Morocco
Political Context
The intention of the trade treaty signed with France in August 1863 is to curb the damaging effects of
protectionism and to limit the extent of European penetration but, subverted from its original purpose, it
becomes one of the causes of the protectionism problem. The Dahir of June 1864 then proclaimed
freedom of trade throughout the Sharifian Empire. The conventions of 1856, 1860–1 and 1863
established the legal bases for relations between Morocco and Europe. Europe’s influence then began to
grow.
1863
Egypt
Cities And Urban Spaces
On 18 October, under the rule of Khedive Isma‘il, the Egyptian Museum opens in the Caireen district of
Bulaq under the management of French Egyptologist Auguste Mariette, known as Mariette Pasha.
1863
Egypt
Migrations
Muhammad Sa‘id Pasha dispatches part of a Sudanese battalion to help stop a rebellion against the
Second Mexican Empire.
1863 - 1879
Egypt
Reforms And Social Changes
Education attracts renewed interest during Isma‘il Pasha’s era. His government establishes schools and
reviews students’ expenses, including their living expenses, which sees the restoration of the Diwan (or
ministry) of Schools that Sa‘id had annulled. Now as the education budget increased, gradually, the
government also returned to dispatching missions to Europe, mostly to France. A number of primary
schools were established across the country: from Alexandria in the north to Minya in the south.
1863
Spain
Fine And Applied Arts
The painters Mariano Fortuny y Marsal and Francisco Lameyer travel to North Africa. Fortuny buys
different artworks and textiles for his collection.
1863
Portugal
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of the novel Amor de Perdição (Fatal Love) by Camilo Castelo-Branco (1825–90). Written very
quickly, this romance has everything to be a major work of passion: tragic intensity, speed of action,
balance of characters and simplicity of style.
1863
Turkey
International Exhibitions
Sergi-i Umumi-I Osmani (Ottoman General Exhibition), its format borrowed from Western exhibitions, is
opened in İstanbul.
1864
Tunisia
Political Context
The popular uprising sounds the death knell for reform. The great figure of this insurrection, ‘Ali bin
Ghedham, comes from the region of Kasserine.
1864
Romania
Fine And Applied Arts
Dimitrie Bolintineanu, the Minister of Religion and Public Instruction, organises in Bucharest an exhibition
displaying works of contemporary Romanian artists, the most important of the time being painters
Theodor Aman, Gheorghe Tattarescu and Carol Popp de Szathmari.
1864
Romania
Cities And Urban Spaces
14 April: the Commune Law is adopted by which cities and towns become urban communes, led by a
mayor and a council. All urban communes must have a fire department and a hospital.
1864
Romania
Political Context
14 May: coup d’état of Alexandru Ioan Cuza, who dissolves parliament and proposes a new constitutional
project, which is voted the same month and ratified by the Ottoman Empire and the guaranteeing Powers
in June 1864. The Statute Expanding the Paris Convention assigned greater power to the prince and the
government.
1864
Romania
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
4 August: establishment of the General Directorate of the Post and the Telegraph in the United
Principalities.
1864
Romania
Cities And Urban Spaces
19 August: establishment of Bucharest’s city hall. Bucharest had been the United Principalities’ capital
since 1861.
1864
Romania
Reforms And Social Changes
26 August: Alexandru Ioan Cuza promulgates the first Romanian land reform, which transforms peasants
into owners of the land on which they had been working on the estates of the aristocracy. Peasants are
also freed from the duties they had to perform for the nobility.
1864
Romania
Economy And Trade
27 October: foundation of the Romanian Chamber of Commerce and Industry.
1864
Romania
Fine And Applied Arts
14 November: a School of Fine Arts (which today is the National University of Art) is founded in
Bucharest by painters Gheorghe Tattarescu and Theodor Aman.
1864
Romania
Reforms And Social Changes
December: the law of public instruction establishes free, compulsory primary education.
1864 - 1865
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Qawasim and other sheikhdoms of the Arab littoral are held by Britain to sign a Treaty pledging to
abstain from any interference with British Gulf Telegraph installations and to punish any aggressions
made against them.
1864
Lebanon
Travelling
Inauguration of the Capuchin cathedral dedicated to Saint Louis IX King of France. The Capuchins had
arrived in Beirut in 1628, practising their rites in the old Saint George church where the current Maronite
cathedral now stands. Before moving to their present location the Capuchins built their first church, also
dedicated to Saint Louis, in Beirut in 1732.
1864
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
A governmental survey reveals the existence of 443 friendly societies (Società di mutuo soccorso), all
located in Central and Northern Italy (Milan has 38 societies with a total of 9,923 members, Turin 13 with
14,864 members). Their number and membership grows considerably over time until the development of
modern welfare.
1864
Greece
Political Context
The Ionian islands are incorporated within the newly established Greek State.
1864
Lebanon
Political Context
Dawud Pasha (the mutasarrif [governor] of Lebanon, appointed by the Ottomans) restores to Lebanon a
part of its lost territory, establishes for the Druze a school in Abayh that still bears his name and
struggles against the feudal lords in the south and the clerical party in the north.
1864
Portugal
Rediscovering The Past
Creation of the Carmo Archaeological Museum by the Portuguese Association of Civil Architects, which in
1867 adopts the title of Royal Association of Civil Architects and Portuguese Archaeologists. The museum
is located in the ruins of medieval Convento do Carmo, destroyed by the 1755 earthquake.
1864
Portugal
Economy And Trade
Banco Nacional Ultramarino is established in Lisbon, as the issuing bank for Portuguese overseas
territories. BNU has a significant role in supporting the economic development of the country and the
former colonies. Its savings, investment and issuing role facilitates the currency circulation throughout
them.
1864
Portugal
Economy And Trade
The unpopular tobacco monopoly is ended by parliamentary law. Hereafter tobacco will be auctioned and
exploited by those offering the best price to the state. Some of the main tobacco companies merge into
bigger companies to ensure its exploration. The Companhia Lisbonense de Tabacos, founded in 1865,
becomes a major player.
1864
Germany
Political Context
As a consequence of the Prussian–Danish war, Denmark retracts its demand for Schleswig and Holstein.
1864
Germany
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The chemist Julius Lothar Meyer (1830–95) develops the first periodic table of chemical elements.
1864 - 1910
Lebanon
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
During this period the Beirut Tram covers 12 km around Beirut’s centre. It runs until 1910.
1864
Turkey
Cities And Urban Spaces
Imperial decree orders that all civil servants have to light one or two street gas lamps in front of their
houses both in summer and winter.
1865
Romania
Fine And Applied Arts
The first showing of the “Living Artists Exhibition” (for painters and sculptors), organised by painter
Theodor Aman, takes place in Iaşi. The annual organisation of such an exhibition is established by a
decree issued in December 1864.
1865
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
The new-born Italian state approves a civil code that places women in a subordinate position in the
family. Boys and girls can inherit equally, but married women need “marital authorisation” to manage
their property. Male and female adultery are treated differently. The “defence of honour” is accepted as
attenuating circumstance in murder cases.
1865 - 1867
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
The worst of the five cholera epidemics that hit Italy during the 19th century kills more than 160,000.
The most affected towns are always Naples and Palermo.
1865
Egypt
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The royal yacht Mahroussa is built for Isma‘il Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt.
1865
Portugal
Cities And Urban Spaces
1 May: Santa Apolónia Central Railway Station of Lisbon, connecting to the East and North Railways, is
inaugurated. It is sited in the north bank of the Tagus River, close to Praça do Comércio in Lisbon. It is
an example of 19th-century iron buildings.
1865
Portugal
Fine And Applied Arts
The stuccoes of the corridor of the Monserrate Palace are inspired by those of Alhambra Palace in
Granada. The profusion of columns is considered to recall those in the Hypostyle Hall of the Cordova
Mosque.
1865
Portugal
International Exhibitions
“A Exposição Internacional”, in Porto, is the first international exhibition organised in Portugal. Designed
by the English architect Thomas Dillen Jones, it follows the London model and was conceived to
accommodate the Portuguese International Exhibition.
1865
Portugal
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Bom-senso e Bom-gosto (Good Sense and Good Taste) by Antero de Quental (1842–91) is an open letter
published as pamphlet, replying to and ridiculing the poetry of António Feliciano de Castilho (1800–75)
and urging young writers to take a revolutionary position instead. This controversy became known as the
"Questão Coimbrã” (the Coimbra Question).
1865
Turkey
Political Context
Formation of Young Ottoman opposition against the bureaucratic domination of Ali Paşa and Fuad Paşa.
Circa 1865 - Circa 1900
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Naturalism, a literary movement that draws inspiration from descriptions of life, science and
documentary observation, and which on occasion makes use of crude vocabulary to give it greater
veracity, causes widespread offence. The movement was led by Émile Zola, with his Rougon-Macquart
cycle.
1865
Lebanon
Cities And Urban Spaces
Sultan ‘Abd al-‘Aziz orders the building of a hospital known as the military infirmary. It will later be
turned into a courthouse after the French Mandate and then become the Insitute of Fine Arts of the
Lebanese University.
1865
Turkey
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The first comprehensive physics textbook in Turkish, Mehmed Emin Derviş Paşa’s (1817–79) Usul-i
Hikmet-i Tabiiyye (Elements of physics) is published in Istanbul.
1866
Romania
Political Context
February: because of his authoritative regime, Cuza is forced to abdicate by a coalition of conservative
and liberal-radical politicians.
1866
Romania
Political Context
14–20 April: plebiscite leading to German Prince Carol de Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen being elected ruler
of the United Principalities and recognised by the Ottoman Empire in October. On 13 July a new
constitution is adopted, based on the Belgian one from 1835.
1866
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Political Context
Qawasim lands are divided among the four sons of Sheikh Sultan bin Saqr following his death. The
number of Trucial States rises from five to nine.
1866
Austria
Migrations
Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen from south-western Germany is elected as Prince of Romania.
1866
Italy
Economy And Trade
A law confiscates the properties of religious orders and congregations, and establishes a state fund to
support the clergy and monks.
1866
Italy
Political Context
Italy participates in the Austro-Prussian War on the side of Prussia and annexes Venice.
1866
Greece
Fine And Applied Arts
Nikiphoros Lytras takes up a professorship at the School of the Arts in Athens.
1866
Greece
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The poet Kostis Palamas publishes his first collection of verse entitled the Songs of My Fatherland. A
major figure on the Greek literary scene, Palamas writes the Olympic Anthem and is nominated for the
Nobel Prize for Literature.
1866
Greece
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Emmanuel Roidis, one of Greece’s most influential authors, publishes his novel Pope Joan, which is
translated into a number of languages.
1866
Egypt
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The first Egyptian stamps are issued on 1 January.
1866 - 1867
Egypt
Reforms And Social Changes
In 1866 the School of Irrigation and Architecture is inaugurated at al-Za‘faran Saray in ‘Abbasiyya in
Cairo; it then transfers to Mustafa Fadil Saray at Darb al-Jama‘iz in 1867. The School provides a study
programme of five years: a preparatory year followed by a further four years; two years respectively
specialising in irrigation and architecture.
1866
Spain
Economy And Trade
Financial crisis during the last years of Queen Isabel II's government because of public investments in
the construction of the railway.
1866
Germany
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Werner von Siemens invents the dynamo.
1866 - 1905
Germany
Economy And Trade
Henri Nestlé founds the company Nestlé, which becomes the world’s largest corporation for comestible
goods.
1866 - 1871
Germany
Economy And Trade
Formation of the North German Confederation in 1866/7 sees a federation of the 22 independent states
of northern Germany, with nearly 30 million inhabitants. It was the first modern German nation-state
and the basis for the later German Empire (1871–1918).
1866
Turkey
Economy And Trade
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
İzmir-Aydın railway is built.
1866
The Civil Medical School is opened.
1866
Austria
Political Context
Following defeat at the Battle of Königgrätz (3 October), at the Peace of Vienna, Austria is forced to cede
the Venetian province to Italy.
1867
Romania
Political Context
The centre of present-day Transylvania is integrated into the Hungarian kingdom after the creation of the
Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Partium and Banat had already been included in Hungary.
1867
Romania
Economy And Trade
4 May: proclamation of the law for the introduction of a new monetary system and for the issuing of
national coins; 1870 is the year when the first Romanian coins are minted in Romania having previously
been minted abroad.
1867
Romania
International Exhibitions
At the International Exposition held in Paris, the United Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia have their
own pavilions.
1867
Romania
International Exhibitions
On the occasion of the International Exposition of Paris a book with information about Romania’s
agriculture, commerce, industry and resources is published in Paris by a commission coordinated by
Alexandru Odobescu.
1867
Romania
Rediscovering The Past
The Pietroasa Treasure is displayed at the International Exposition in Paris.
1867
France
International Exhibitions
The exposition known as the Universal World Exhibition of Art and Industry – the seventh World
Expo/Fair and the second held in Paris after that of 1855; it ran from 1 April to 3 November 1867 on the
Champ-de-Mars in Paris; 41 countries were represented.
1867
Austria
Fine And Applied Arts
The Austrian Museum of Applied Arts purchases the minbar from the Ibn Tulun Mosque in Cairo.
1867
Italy
Economy And Trade
Law on the abolition of religious bodies: the real estate properties of 25,000 religious bodies are
auctioned.
1867
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
Around 60 per cent of men and 80 per cent of women are unable to sign their marriage certificate
because they are unable to write.
1867
Italy
Political Context
Uprising in Rome demanding unification with Italy. At the same time, Garibaldi leads an expedition of
volunteers that enters the Papal States and tries to seize Rome. Roman rebels are defeated and
executed. Garibaldi is defeated by Papal troops backed by a French expeditionary corps (France protects
the Papal States).
1867
Italy
Travelling
The Società Geografica Italiana is founded. In 1869-70, it organises an exploratory expedition to East
Africa, in 1875 to Tunisia and in 1876 to Ethiopia. Many other journeys to Africa, and also to Central
Asia, South America and Papua follow. Such travels generally combined scientific purposes and political
agendas.
1867
United Kingdom
International Exhibitions
The Paris Exhibition is the major international exhibition of the century. In the aftermath of the Crimean
War (1854–56), when France, Britain and Turkey ally against Russia, there is a boost of friendship with
and interest in the Ottoman Empire. The Sultan visits the Paris Exhibition and then continues to London
where he was made a Knight of the Garter.
1867
United Kingdom
Political Context
The 1850s and 1860s sees close political, commercial and cultural relations between the Ottoman Empire
and Britain. The zenith of this relationship is the state visit of Ottoman Sultan ‘Abd al-‘Aziz to France and
then Britain. The Prince of Wales then reciprocates with a visit to Constantinople, Damascus and
Jerusalem in 1869.
1867
Austria
Reforms And Social Changes
The Austrian-Hungarian compromise creates a dual-monarchy that has common ministries only for
foreign affairs, defence and public finance.
1867
Egypt
Travelling
Khedive Isma‘il Pasha visits Paris and then London, where he is received by Queen Victoria and
welcomed by the Lord Mayor. He attends a British Royal Navy fleet review alongside the Ottoman Sultan.
1867
Spain
Rediscovering The Past
Foundation of the Museo Arqueológico Nacional in Madrid following the European movement to create
national museums holding the remains of a country's past in tandem with the development of
archaeology as a discipline. The museum covers prehistory to modern times, and from its opening in
1871 Spanish Moorish objects are displayed in its Medieval galleries.
1867
Portugal
Rediscovering The Past
Febo Moniz published by Joaquim Pedro de Oliveira Martins (1845–94). Subtitled "Romance Histórico
Português do Século XVI", the action takes place in Lisbon in 1580. The protagonist is the prosecutor
Febo Moniz, the sole representative of the state to protest against the acclamation of Philip II of Spain as
King of Portugal.
1867
Portugal
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The opening of the Lisbon Astronomical Observatory, Portugal’s national observatory, which has legal
responsibility for national timekeeping. It is located in the Tapada da Ajuda, a green area in the west of
Lisbon.
1867
Portugal
Economy And Trade
First phylloxera disease reaches the Portugal countryside. Porto wine and Portuguese wine production in
general is reduced dramatically. This disease causes economic, financial and social distress and leads to
the abandonment of vineyard farms. The loss of revenues and unemployment increases emigration,
especially to Brazil.
1867 - 1880
Portugal
Economy And Trade
Phylloxera Commission created by the government in order to protect vineyards from the disease. To
combat the disease demands new methods of planting and production. New organisations of wine
producers claim from central government the preservation of regional varieties as well as the definition
and defence of Port and Douro wine “Denominação de Origem Controlada”.
1867
Portugal
International Exhibitions
At the “Exposition Universelle” in Paris, the Portugal Pavilion employs a neo-Manueline architectural style.
The exoticism is a symbol of the Portuguese Empire built by the discoveries of the 15th and 16th
centuries.
1867
Portugal
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Birth of the poet António Nobre (1867–1900). Só, written during his exile in Paris (1892), is the only
work published in his lifetime. The nostalgia of this work, a landmark of the symbolist movement, is
tempered by a certain self-irony, alternating a symbolist refined vocabulary with a more colloquial one.
He influenced the work of the main Portuguese modernists.
1867
Portugal
Reforms And Social Changes
July: The first Portuguese major Civil Code is entrusted to António Luís Seabra (1798–1895), the first
methodical code maker in Portugal. It is intended to meet the liberal need to regulate the juridical
system as happened with French Napoleonic Code. One of its main concerns is the regulation of civil
marriage. The Code will remain in force for nearly a century.
1867
Portugal
Reforms And Social Changes
Foundling wheels for babies left anonymously to be cared for were used between the 15th and the 19th
century. From 1867 they are gradually abolished and replaced by asylums for orphans, foundlings and
abandoned older children. Organised childcare is promoted from 1870 through the foundation of
childcare centres and public support for families.
1867
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Premiere of the opera Roméo et Juliet by Charles-François Gounod.
1867 - 1885
Germany
Fine And Applied Arts
King Ludwig II of Bavaria sets in motion the building of his second palace, Linderhof (1869–85), the
smallest of the large palaces he had built, and the only one he lived to see completed. The king’s
penchant for the so called Moorish style can be seen in several elements, such as the Moorish Kiosk
(1867) and the Moroccan House (1878). The King’s House on the Schachen (1869–72), built with a
Turkish Hall by Georg von Dollmann, further attests to Ludwig’s admiration for the “Oriental” style.
1867
Turkey
International Exhibitions
The Ottoman Empire participates in the International Exhibition in Paris. The Ottoman pavilions are
designed in İstanbul by a self-taught French architect named Léon Parvillée in collaboration with the
Italian architect Barborini. Sultan Abdülaziz travels to Paris at the invitation of Emperor Napoleon III to
attend the opening of the World Exhibition.
1867
Turkey
Travelling
Sultan Abdülaziz makes state visits to European powers.
1867
Turkey
Political Context
8 June: The Egyptian governor receives from the Sublime Porte the title of “khedive,” which provides him
legislative independence.
1867
Austria
Travelling
Sultan ‘Abd al-‘Aziz visits Vienna on 18 July.
1868
Romania
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
29 April: the Romanian Philharmonic Society is founded by conductor Eduard Wachmann with the aim of
organising a permanent symphony orchestra. The inaugural concert takes place in the same year on 15
December.
1868
Lebanon
Rediscovering The Past
Luigi Palma di Cesnola, the American Consul in Cyprus, gives a collection of Cyprian pottery to the Syrian
Protestant College (now the American University) in Beirut. This event is the first step towards the
foundation of the Archaeological Museum of the American University.
1868
Lebanon
Travelling
Foundation of the Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut after Luigi Palma di
Cesnola gives a collection of Cypriot pottery to the newly formed university.
1868
Austria
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The railway across the Brenner Pass (via the Alps) opens.
1868
Austria
Migrations
Michael Latos is born in Croatia (Austrian Empire) in 1828. He later deserts the Austrian army and flees
to the Ottoman Empire, where he makes a military career as Omar Pasha and becomes Minister of War in
1868.
1868 - 1883
Italy
Migrations
Different circular letters by the Minister of Interior place obstacles on migration: migrants are supposed
to have work contracts or to prove they have enough funding to repatriate. Such circular letters have
only limited effect. Landowners put pressure on government to discourage migration.
1868
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
Gualberta Alaide Beccari (a feminist with republican ideas, much influenced by Mazzini) founds the
periodical La donna, which campaigns for women’s rights. La donna’s main contributor is Anna Maria
Mozzoni, who since 1865 had campaigned against “marital authorisation” and for women’s right to vote.
1868 - 1874
Egypt
Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of the Abdeen Palace in Cairo begins in 1868 and inauguration takes place some six years
later.
1868 - 1886
Egypt
Reforms And Social Changes
A Law School is established during Isma‘il Pasha’s era in 1868. Known then as the School of Management
and Languages, the two schools separate in 1882 and remain as such until July 1886. That year, it
becomes the School of Law with two departments, primary and high.
1868
Spain
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The “Generation of ‘68” writers begin to publish after the 1868 revolution; the group is named by one of
its members, Leopoldo Alas, known as Clarín. Their characteristics are middle-class consciousness and a
realist style. Authors in this group include Pedro Antonio de Alarcón, José María Pereda, Benito Pérez
Galdós and Emilia Pardo Bazán.
1868
Spain
Political Context
Carlist wars, economic crisis (1866–68) and disgruntlement with Queen Isabel II and the government
explode in the September revolution known as La Gloriosa. The revolution is followed by six years of
democratic government under Amadeo I, from the Italian Saboya family, (1870–73) and then under the
first Spanish Republic (1873–74), causing the 3rd Carlist war.
1868
Portugal
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The birth of José Viana da Motta (d. 1948). Pianist, composer, conductor and pedagogue, he studied
piano and composition in Berlin and performed in concerts around the world. He was professor of Piano
at the Conservatory of Geneva and Director of the Conservatório Nacional de Lisboa, maintaining his
concert career alongside teaching.
1868 - 1886
Germany
Cities And Urban Spaces
Ludwig II (r. 1864–86) had several palaces built during his reign. The most famous among these are
Neuschwanenstein (1868–92, still in construction when Ludwig died), Neues Schloss Herrenchiemsee
(1878–86, built along the lines of Versailles, but never completed), and Linderhof (1869–85), the only
palace the king lived to see completed.
1868
Turkey
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
29 June: Namık Kemal and Ziya Paşa publish oppositional weekly newspaper in London, where they had
fled to.
1869
United Kingdom
Rediscovering The Past
The opening of the Suez Canal sparks a second burst of British popular interest in ancient Egypt.
1869
Romania
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Timişoara is the first city in Romania to use horse-drawn trams for public transportation. In Bucharest
they are introduced in 1871.
1869
Austria
Cities And Urban Spaces
Opening of the new State Opera House in Vienna.
1869
Austria
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria attends the opening of the Suez Canal on 17 November.
1869
Austria
Travelling
Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria visits Jerusalem.
After 1869
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Economy And Trade
Banyan (Hindu) merchants from British India increase their commercial, shipping and banking activities
throughout the Trucial Coast, particularly within the pearling sector. Soon the Banyan becomes the main
financiers, controlling all processes involving the preparation and pricing of pearls for export to Europe.
1869
Greece
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The railway line from the Thesion district in central Athens to the Port of Piraeus opens.
1869 - 1878
United Kingdom
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Under French direction the Suez Canal opens in 1869, improving the route to India. Britain then acquires
a financial interest in the Canal in 1875. When in 1878 Cyprus becomes part of the British Empire,
another fuelling station on the imperial route to India is achieved.
1869
United Kingdom
Political Context
Built largely with French expertise and capital, the Suez Canal shortens the journey to India. The British
government secures a major financial interest in the Canal in 1876, and its security becomes a major
British interest for the following century.
1869
Egypt
Cities And Urban Spaces
Khedive Isma‘il commissions a French company to construct the first bridge across the River Nile in
Cairo, the Qasr al-Nil Bridge.
1869
Egypt
Cities And Urban Spaces
The Opera House is inaugurated in November 1869 with Verdi’s Opera Rigoletto. In attendance, seated in
the Royal loge, are Khedive Isma‘il Pasha, Empress Eugénie and her husband Napoleon III, and François
Joseph I of Austria.
1869
Egypt
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
With completion of the Suez Canal a number of dignitaries and high-profile personalities arrive in Egypt
for the inauguration, including Empress Eugénie of France.
1869
Egypt
Travelling
Khedive Isma‘il Pasha visits Britain.
1869
Romania
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Installation of the first public telephone line in Romania (in Bucharest between the Minister of Internal
Affairs and the Central Post Office).
1870 - 1875
United Kingdom
Rediscovering The Past
Academic interest and geopolitical concerns combine to stimulate the state-of-the-art mapping of
Palestine. There is strong interest in the lands of the Bible. In addition, following the opening of the Suez
Canal, threats to British routes to India loom from the north, first from Russia and then from the
Ottoman Empire and Germany.
1870
France
Cities And Urban Spaces
From 1870, the suburbs appear around major French cities such as Paris, Lyon, Bordeaux and Marseille.
1870
France
Political Context
The Third Republic had a difficult start: the Treaty of Versailles with Prussia granting Alsace and Lorraine
to the German Empire, and repression of the Commune. After a period known as the “Moral Order”, the
Opportunist (1879–98) or Radical Republic (1898–1914) set up a large number of reforms in all areas,
which include among others: a law on primary education (1881–2); a law on freedom of the press
(1881); the restoration of the law on divorce (1884); a law allowing Trades Unions (1884); and a law on
the separation of Church and State (1905).
1870
France
Travelling
From 1870 onwards, as the peripheries around the big French cities like Paris, Lyon, Bordeaux and
Marseille start growing, they develop into a real suburban belt around the city.
Around 1870 - Around 1920
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Economy And Trade
The period marks the peak of the pearling industry as the main export-commodity industry of the Gulf
region.
1870
Italy
Cities And Urban Spaces
Renewal and urban modernisation of Rome starts with the opening of a long road linking Porta Pia
(where the Italian army broke into the city in 1870) to the Quirinale Palace, residence of the King
(formerly a papal palace). The headquarters of some ministries are located along this road.
1870 - 1912
Italy
Political Context
In 1870, taking advantage of French defeat at the hands of Prussia, the Italian army captures Rome,
which becomes the capital of Italy. The Pope considers Italian rule on Rome to be illegitimate and bans
Catholics from participating in Italian political life. In the following decades the ban is progressively lifted
to counter socialist growth.
1876 - 1899
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Migrations
Extensive emigration of intellectuals from Macedonia to neighbouring countries and Russia. With
unfavourable conditions at home for science and research, many Macedonian students stay in the
country where they studied to contribute to the development of science, culture and arts. They often
organised societies such as the Sofia Circle of Macedonian Students run by Petar Pop-Arsov (1872–
1941), which began issuing Loza newspaper in 1882.
1870
Lebanon
Political Context
Ottomans appoint Rustam Pasha as mutasarrif (governor). He is an equally firm and economical
administrator.
1870
Portugal
Reforms And Social Changes
Publication of Joao de Deus’s Cartilha Maternal, a beginner’s reading book that was to be in use for a
long time. João de Deus was a follower of Maria Montessori’s pedagogical theories and founded in
Portugal the “Escola Nova” movement.
1870s - 1900s
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The corset introduces the fashion for a more slender figure.
1870
France
Political Context
The Franco-Prussian War: France's defeat to Prussia results in the abdication of Napoleon III.
Proclamation of the Third Republic.
1870
Germany
Economy And Trade
The Deutsche Bank is founded by Georg von Siemens.
1870 - 1913
Germany
Economy And Trade
The rail network transforms German industry, and merchant shipping multiplies.
Since 1870
Germany
Migrations
The so-called Ruhrpolen migrate to the Ruhr, where many work in coal mining.
1870
Turkey
Cities And Urban Spaces
Fire in Beyoğlu (İstanbul) destroys about 3,000 houses; 80 people are killed. After that incident using
brick and stone to build houses becomes obligatory.
1870
Turkey
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Ahmed Mithat Efendi (1844–1912), who introduced the novel from the Ottoman community begins to
publish Letaif-I Rivayat (Finest Stories), which includes long stories and novellas.
1871
Romania
Rediscovering The Past
Alexandru Odobescu sends an archaeological questionnaire to teachers all over the country, who have to
return information about archaeological discoveries or vestiges of antique monuments existing in the
areas where they live or work.
1871
Italy
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Fréjus Rail Tunnel under Alps, between Italy and France, inaugurated (12.8 km long).
1871
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
24 December: first world performance of the new opera by Verdi, Aida, set in ancient Egypt, at the
Khedivial Opera House in Cairo.
1871
Greece
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Nikolaos Politis publishes the first volume of his pioneering work on Greek folklore, Study of the Life of
Modern Greeks: Modern Greek Mythology.
1871 - 1877
Egypt
Cities And Urban Spaces
Jezira Bridge is constructed in 1871 and opens to traffic in 1877. The intention is to link the districts of
Dokki and Bulaq al-Dakrur with Zamalek. Construction requires redirection of the Nile bed.
1871
Egypt
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Giuseppe Verdi’s Egyptian-themed Aida premiers in Cairo on 24 December.
1871 - 1896
Spain
Cities And Urban Spaces
By the end of the 19th century tram lines have increased in cities. Madrid has horse-drawn trams from
1871 and Barcelona from 1872 but the first city with an electric tram is Bilbao in 1896, followed by
Cartagena.
1871
Spain
Rediscovering The Past
Voyage of the frigate Arapiles to the Near East. The ship was commissioned by the Spanish government
to travel to the Near East with Spanish archaeologists and curators to document ancient monuments and
buy antiquities. It sailed from Naples to Greece, Istanbul, Rhodes, Cyprus, Lebanon and Egypt and
brought back drawings, notes and artworks to be kept in the Museo Arqueológico Nacional of Madrid.
1871
France
Political Context
When the people of Paris refuse to accept defeat and take up arms the Versailles-based government
resist and harshly repress the "Commune".
1871
Germany
Political Context
The German Empire, a union of sovereign states and free cities, is established under Prussian leadership.
1871
Germany
Cities And Urban Spaces
Berlin becomes the imperial capital.
1871 - 1910
Germany
Cities And Urban Spaces
The second Industrial Revolution sees massive immigration; the population rises from 41 to 65 million,
and from only eight cities with no more than 100,000 inhabitants, more than 48 cities are formed.
1871 - 1914
Germany
Cities And Urban Spaces
The process of urbanisation begins: in 1907 Berlin had more than 2 million citizens of which around 40%
are locals, 20% German immigrants and 40% foreign immigrants.
From 1871
Germany
Economy And Trade
The capital market is enlivened by France’s payment of 5 million French francs, paid to Germany as
compensation following the war between the two countries (1870–1).
From 1871 - 1914
Germany
Economy And Trade
Germany’s industrial production is now six times what it had been.
1871
Turkey
Economy And Trade
Ottoman railway policy is formulated by the decree of Sultan Abdülaziz to establish a main line between
İstanbul and Baghdad, with secondary lines to the Black Sea and Mediterranean coasts.
1871
Turkey
Rediscovering The Past
German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann (1822–90) begins excavations in Troy.
1872 - 1874
Tunisia
Cities And Urban Spaces
The city of Tunis benefits from the first installation of public street lighting. An English company builds a
gasometer and installs the pipelines necessary to supply gas for street lighting of the city’s main arteries.
1872
Austria
Economy And Trade
Foundation of the Austrian Agricultural University in Vienna.
1872 - 1891
Austria
International Exhibitions
The Kunsthistorisches Museum (Museum of Fine Arts) in Vienna is built.
1872
United Kingdom
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Italian composer Verdi is commissioned by the Egyptian Khedive to compose the opera Aida for
celebrations to mark the opening of the Suez Canal. Later Verdi is also commissioned to compose the
Egyptian National Anthem.
1872 - 1874
Portugal
Fine And Applied Arts
O Desterrado (The Outcast), a sculpture by António Soares dos Reis (1847–89) is an idealised selfportrait. It conveys the collective feelings of his contemporary intellectuals and the feelings of loneliness
and longing common to those who had left their homeland. The sculptor’s romantic sensibility enabled
him to shape feelings and psychological tensions in the marble.
1872
France
Fine And Applied Arts
Impression, Sunrise by the Impressionist painter Claude Monet.
1872 - 1879
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
As a consequence of the Kulturkampf the influence of the Catholic Church is limited in Germany.
1873 - 1877
Tunisia
Economy And Trade
Khayr al-Din undertakes reform of the Tunisian economy.
1873 - 1877
Tunisia
Political Context
The regency of Khayr al-Din, the Grand Vizier reformer, who reorganises institutions and the economy.
His major cultural works are the creation of Sadiki College and major reform of the Zaytuna Mosque.
1873
Romania
International Exhibitions
Two Romanians are members of the international jury of the Vienna International Exposition: agronomist
and economist P.S. Aurelian and doctor Carol Davila.
1873
Romania
Travelling
The first tourism organisation from Romania, called the Alpine Association of Transylvania, is founded in
Braşov.
1873
Austria
Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of a new water-supply pipeline from the Alps to Vienna.
1873
Austria
International Exhibitions
Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria opens the Weltausstellung, Vienna’s World Trade Fair.
1873
Austria
International Exhibitions
A copy of the decoration from the Tomb of Khnumhotep is exhibited in the Egyptian Pavilion of the World
Trade Fair.
1873
Austria
International Exhibitions
At the World Trade Fair in Vienna, the Austrian Museum of Applied Art purchases a pair of jugs from
Tunisia for the museum.
1873
Austria
Rediscovering The Past
The Austrian archaeologist Alexander Conze organizes excavations in Samothrace.
1873
Greece
Economy And Trade
Foundation of the Greek Stock Market.
1873 - 1894
Morocco
Political Context
Reign of Mulay al-Hasan I: Mulay al-Hasan I maintains the political independence of the country. He
attempted to adapt the country to its new circumstances and employed a policy of reforms, affecting all
areas of political and economic life, to improve the management of public affairs.
1873
Spain
Economy And Trade
Development of the Minas de Riotinto (Huelva, Andalucía). Bought by a British company, the mines bring
important economic progress to this region. The dangerous chemicals used in metal extraction spark the
first environmental protest by mine workers. (The first fooball match took place in this mine, thanks to
the British engineers.)
1873
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The first railway in Macedonia runs from Thessalonica via Skopje to Belgrade. Its construction, financed
with foreign investments, began in 1871 and the track to Skopje is finished in 1873. The Skopje–
Mitrovica line is completed in 1878. In 1888 it is connected to Serbian railways at the border crossing
Zibevche near Vranje.
1873
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Construction of the first railway station in Macedonia in Skopje.
1873
Portugal
Reforms And Social Changes
A primary school building to be built in wood attracts the attention of visitors to the Portuguese stand at
the “Weltausstellung” (world exposition) in Vienna.
1873
Germany
Rediscovering The Past
The development of Classical Archaeology is strongly influenced by Heinrich Schliemann in the second
half of the 18th century when for example he finds the “Gold of Troy”.
1873
Germany
Economy And Trade
The Krupp Corporation is the largest industrial concern in Europe.
1873 - 1880
Germany
Economy And Trade
The economic crash known as the Gründerkrise sees companies and banks shut down and a rise in
unemployment and social dissatisfaction.
1873 - 1878
Germany
International Exhibitions
The Moorish Kiosk, built for the World Exhibition in Paris in 1878, was subsequently bought for Linderhof
Palace Park by Ludwig II. The Moroccan House, which was actually built in Morocco for the International
Exhibition in Vienna in 1873 and acquired by a private individual after the king’s death, was bought by
the German state in 1980 and reconstructed in the Palace Park in 1998.
1873
Germany
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Levi Strauss, a German citizen in exile in America, requests the patent for blue Jeans.
1873
Lebanon
Economy And Trade
Beirut Water Works factory is founded, providing water for daily use by the Lebanese people, taking
water from Nahr al-Kalb and distributing it through an extensive water network.
1873
Turkey
Fine And Applied Arts
First art exhibition in İstanbul, organised by Şeker Ahmed Paşa.
1873
Turkey
International Exhibitions
Ottoman participates in Vienna World Exhibition with a faithful full-scale replica of the Sultan Ahmed
Fountain near Hagia Sophia in İstanbul. Ottoman artisans crafted the details of the façade panels, and
the most of the materials were brought from Turkey.
1873
Turkey
Rediscovering The Past
Heinrich Schliemann finds what he calls “Priam’s Treasure” in Troy.
1873
Turkey
Political Context
1 April: Namık Kemal’s play Vatan Yahud Silistre arouses patriotic sentiments in İstanbul.
1874
Romania
Rediscovering The Past
18 April: decree for the founding of the Commission of Public Monuments to record the public
monuments on Romanian territory and to ensure their conservation.
1874
Romania
Reforms And Social Changes
Issue of the first sanitation law in the United Principalities. The sanitation system is organised
hierarchically and a Superior Medical Council, with a consultative role, is created.
1874
Austria
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Joseph Strauss composes the opera Die Fledermaus.
1874
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The first Emirati historian Abdullah Saleh al-Mutawa’ is born in Sharjah.
1874
Austria
Fine And Applied Arts
Kasper von Zumbusch (1830–1915) begins work on a monument to Empress Maria Theresia, situated on
Maria-Theresien-Platz at the Ringstrasse in Vienna.
1874
Egypt
Migrations
Khedive Isma‘il attempts to reduce slave trading and extends Egypt’s rule in Africa. Managing to annex
Darfur in 1874, he is prevented from further expansion into Ethiopia when his army is defeated by the
Emperor Yohannes IV.
1874 - 1885
Spain
Political Context
Restoration of the monarchy. A military uprising under General Martínez Campos in Sagunto against the
Republic returns the throne to the Bourbon Dynasty, with Alfonso XII (son of Isabel II) as King.
1874
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Beginnings of the Macedonian amateur theatre in Veles initiated by educator and playwright Jordan Hadzi
Konstantinov-Dzinot (1821–82). Professional theatres open in the late 19th century. Vojadan
Chernodrinski (1875–1951) is considered one of the founders of the Macedonian theatre. The premiere
for his best-known play, the tragedy Macedonian Bloody Wedding was held in Sofia, Bulgaria, on 7
November 1900.
1874 - 1890
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
“Medicine is a social science, and politics is nothing more than medicine on a large scale”, Rudolf Virchow
stated in defence of public health and the building of hospitals in Berlin (i.e. Friedrichshain (1874),
Moabit (1875, now closed) and Am Urban (1890); even parks and playgrounds were important to
improve city life for the proletariat, Virchow continued.
1874
Turkey
Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of the residential blocks of Akaretler (Istanbul) by the architect Agob Balian. They are built
for the elite staff of the nearby Dolmabahçe Palace.
1875
Tunisia
Rediscovering The Past
The Saint Louis Museum in Carthage is founded in the former seminary of the White Fathers.
1875
Tunisia
Reforms And Social Changes
The creation of Sadiki College based on a modern concept of education: the school separates from the
mosque and a distinction is made between educational structures and those of the religious life.
1875 - 1893
Romania
Political Context
Creation of the first Romanian political parties: the Liberal Party (1875), the Conservative Party (1880),
the Radical-Democratic Party (1888), and the Social-Democratic Party of Romanian Labourers (1893).
1875
France
Rediscovering The Past
Creation of the French School of Rome (excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum).
1875
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Gray, Paul and Co, a British Company, establishes a shipping office in Lingah, a city within Qawasim
territory, located on the Persian littoral of the Arabian Gulf. The port first served for mail delivery and as
a transshipment centre for traffic to and from Bahrain and the Trucial Coast. Later until 1902 all pearls
from the Trucial Coast were exported to British India via this port.
1875
Lebanon
Reforms And Social Changes
Maronite clergy move their school from Ghazir to Beirut. Granted the title of university by the authorities,
which allows it to grant academic degrees, mainly doctoral degrees in philosophy and theology, the
school takes the name of Saint Joseph’s University. Faculties and institutes are founded in subsequent
years including, in 1883, a Faculty of Medicine.
1875
Austria
Reforms And Social Changes
Edmund Count Széchényi establishes Turkey’s first fire brigade in Istanbul.
1875
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Economy And Trade
Gray, Paul and Co, a British Company, establishes a shipping office in Lingah, a city within Qawasim
territory, located on the Persian littoral of the Arabian Gulf. The port first served for mail delivery and as
a transshipment centre for traffic to and from Bahrain and the Trucial Coast. Later until 1902 all pearls
from the Trucial Coast were exported to British India via this port.
1875 - 1887
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Economy And Trade
Lingah, on the Persian littoral of the Gulf, serves as a conduit for the Trucial Coast’s imports from British
India, including cloth, coffee, flour and rice. It is governed as a free port under Qawasim administration.
Late 19th century
Greece
Cities And Urban Spaces
Mavrokordatos Mansion is built in the Kipseli neighbourhood in Athens for the well-known political family
of that name.
Late 19th century
Greece
Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of the Greek Orthodox Church of Evangelismos in Brăila, Romania.
1875
Greece
Rediscovering The Past
Excavations begin at Olympia under the German archaeologist Ernst Curtius; they continue under
German leadership until World War II.
Late 19th century
Greece
Rediscovering The Past
The “early conservator” Panagiotis Kaloudis works on the restoration of the Chaironia Lion.
1875
Austria
Migrations
Gustav Mahler (1860–1911) is born in Kalištĕ in Bohemia; he emigrates from there to Vienna in 1875.
1875 - 1878
Serbia
Political Context
During the 1875 Bosnia-Herzegovina rebellion against Ottoman authority, the principalities of Serbia and
Montenegro provide the insurgents with moral, material and military support, which leads to the first
Serbo-Turkish War in 1876. Having been a long time in preparation, the rebellion is widespread and
raises questions not only about Serbia but also about the East, thus becoming an event of European
importance. Its outcome is the convocation of the Berlin Congress (1878), at which both Serbia and
Montenegro gain independence, and Austria-Hungary takes over Bosnia-Herzegovina.
1875 - 1876
Egypt
Economy And Trade
In December 1875 Stephen Cave and John Stokes are sent by the British Government to inquire into the
finances of Egypt. Their report, published in April 1876, advises that in view of the perceived “waste and
extravagance” it is necessary for foreign powers to interfere to restore credit.
1875
Egypt
Migrations
The Egyptian Geographic Society is established by a decree of Khedive Isma‘il Pasha on 19 May 1875. Its
first president is the German botanist, traveller and ethnologist Georg August Schweinfurth.
1875
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Migrations
The Dictionary of Three Languages by Gjorgji Pulevski (d. 1893) is published in Belgrade. It shows the
political context and coexistence of Macedonians, Albanians and Turks in the territory of Macedonia. It
gives words in Macedonian, Albanian and Turkish in three columns. Pulevski was also the author of the
Dictionary of Four Languages.
1875 - 1876
Portugal
Economy And Trade
In 1875 the French government convenes the Diplomatic Conference of the Metre that proclaims the
Metre Convention. Portugal receives the tenth copies of the metric and kilogram standards.
1875
Portugal
Travelling
Aware that Portuguese empirical knowledge of Central Africa was being overtaken by other countries, the
“Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa” is founded to "promote and assist the study and progress of
geography and related sciences in Portugal". To raise awareness of the colonial Portuguese possessions
in Africa and Asia was also a goal.
1875
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Lebanon
Cities And Urban Spaces
Opening of the Palais Garnier.
1875
Maronite clergy move their school from Ghazir to Beirut. Granted the title of university by the authorities,
which allows it to grant academic degrees, mainly doctoral degrees in philosophy and theology, the
school takes the name of Saint Joseph’s University. Faculties and institutes are founded in subsequent
years.
1875
Turkey
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of the novel Taaşşuk-u Talat ve Fitnat (The Romance of Talat and Fitnat) by Şemseddin Sami
(1850–1904). This book is considered to be the starting point of the Ottoman novel.
1876
Romania
Fine And Applied Arts
19 February: birth of the great Romanian sculptor Constantin Brâncuşi, author of sculptures such as
Mademoiselle Pogany, The Kiss, Bird in Space, and The Endless Column. His works are today exhibited in
museums in France, the USA and Romania.
1876
Romania
Reforms And Social Changes
Foundation of the Romanian Red Cross.
1876
Italy
Rediscovering The Past
In Rome, Luigi Pigorini founds the National Prehistoric Ethnographic Museum, enriching with new
acquisitions the ethnographic and prehistoric collection previously belonging to the Kircher Museum,
founded in the 17th century.
1876
Spain
Reforms And Social Changes
Following the curtailment of academic freedom in the university, a group of professors expelled from
Madrid University introduces in Spain a new education system under the Institución Libre de Enseñanza
(Free Institution for Education), a secular private project that would modernise all levels of the education
system between 1876 and 1936. This initiative was to have an important impact on some of the most
important Spanish intellectuals.
1876
United Kingdom
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
In 1870, after attending universities in Edinburgh and London, Scottish-born Alexander Graham Bell
(1847–1922) immigrates to Canada before becoming professor of vocal physiology at Boston. There, in
pursuit of a device to help the deaf, Bell invented the telephone, which he patented in February 1876
only days ahead of other rivals. It was not until 10 March 1876 that the famous words “Mr Watson, come
here; I want you” were transmitted by telephone. He formed the Bell Telephone Company in 1877.
1876
Portugal
Political Context
Partido Histórico and Partido Reformista merge into the Partido Progressista in September. Power
alternation with the Partido Regenerador framed rotativism. They were able to carry out some urgent
reforms but in the end the system soon degenerated into political conformism.
1876 - 1881
Portugal
Cities And Urban Spaces
The "Urban General Improvements Plan for Lisbon" (Commission of 1876–81) designs wide, straight
roads – modern boulevards – to define orthogonal blocks for buildings, with roundabouts, pavements,
vegetation and street furniture namely at Avenida 24 de Julho, Avenida da Liberdade and covering the
area from Picoas to Campo Grande.
1876
Portugal
International Exhibitions
“Centennial International Exhibition” Philadelphia, USA. Support for visitors and accommodation of the
Portuguese Commissariat were the main purposes of a stylish and exotic Portugal Pavilion.
1876 - 1909
Turkey
Political Context
Reign of Sultan Abdülhamid II.
1876
France
Fine And Applied Arts
Dance at Le moulin de la Galette by the Impressionist painter Pierre-Auguste Renoir.
1876
Germany
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Robert Koch discovers bacteriology.
1876
Lebanon
Cities And Urban Spaces
By 1876 Beirut has increased 10–12 times its size in 1841. Eleven districts are added and Danish acting
Consul Julius Loyvted draws the new map and presents it to Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid II. Banks, quarantine
office, quays, railway office, telegraph, post office, police stations and offices for foreign agencies are all
established in the existing city centre.
1876
Turkey
Cities And Urban Spaces
The construction of Dolmabahçe Mosque by Agob Balian.
1876
Turkey
Political Context
23 December: Promulgation of the first Ottoman constitution.
1877 - 1881
Romania
Political Context
After Parliament declares Romania’s independence (May 1877), Romania participates alongside Russia in
the Russian-Ottoman war. The Congress of Berlin (1878) recognises the independence of Romania, which
receives the greater part of Dobruja, but cedes the south of Bessarabia to Russia. In March 1881
Romania is proclaimed a kingdom. Prince Carol and his wife Elizabeth are crowned as King and Queen of
Romania in May in Bucharest.
1877 - 1882
Romania
Fine And Applied Arts
Ion Georgescu, considered to be the first Romanian modern sculptor, studies in Paris, where he exhibits
his first works.
1877
Austria
Fine And Applied Arts
The Austrian glass manufacture Lobmayr produces glass cups in the Oriental Style.
1877
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
The “Coppino Law” makes elementary schools mandatory and free of charge.
1877
Austria
Fine And Applied Arts
The Viennese Stock Market is completed to a design by Theophil Hansen.
1877
Austria
Migrations
Karl Krauss (1874–1936) is born in Jičín in Bohemia; he emigrates from Bohemia to Vienna in 1877,
where his famous journal Die Fackel (The Torch) is published in 1898.
1877
Egypt
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Yaqub Sanu‘ founds the satirical magazine Abu Naddara early in this year. It has immediate and wide
appeal to both the literate and the illiterate, who find someone to read it to them.
1877
Portugal
Cities And Urban Spaces
Ponte Dona Maria Pia, a bridge over the Douro River, completes the Lisbon–Porto railway line. Designed
by Gustave Eiffel and Théophile Seyrig, the bridge keeps the beauty of the Douro unchanged. It was built
where the banks are closer. It was named after the Queen.
1877
Portugal
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Birth of Teixeira de Pascoaes (d. 1952). This poet was the main representative of the aesthetic and
doctrinal movement called “saudosismo”, a form of existentialism, and a leader of the movement
Renascença Portuguesa. In 1910 he launched in Porto the magazine A Águia, the main resource of the
“saudosismo” movement .
1877
Portugal
Travelling
Hermenegildo Capelo, Roberto Ivens and Serpa Pinto appointed to organise an expedition to southern
Africa. After a briefing by Silva Porto in Bié, they chose separate itineraries. Capelo and Ivens focus on
the Kwanza and Kuangu rivers and on the Yaka people. Serpa Pinto picks the Zambezi River and
eventually reaches the Transvaal.
1877 - 1878
Turkey
Migrations
Mass Balkan migration. After the Russo-Turkish War (called the ’93 War by Turks) between 1 and 1.5
million people are driven from the Balkans to the Ottoman heartlands.
1877
Turkey
Rediscovering The Past
German archaeologist Carl Humann (1839–96) begins excavating Pergamon. He would later conduct
excavations in Zincirli (1888) and Magnesia (1892).
1877
Turkey
Political Context
19 March: Opening of the parliament.
1878 - 1921
Jordan
Cities And Urban Spaces
Centrally positioned in the northern part of Jordan at the edge of the cultivated lands and the desert,
thus having access to both ecological zones and demographies, Amman is the perfect choice for the
capital of the Emirate of Transjordan. It develops rapidly from small village to relatively big town within a
few decades. Being one of the important stations on the Hijaz Railway adds to its geopolitical and
economic significance.
1878 - 1906
Jordan
Migrations
Circassian and Chechen refugees settled by the Ottomans help to create new agricultural villages in
Transjordan. Two waves of immigrants reach Jordan between 1878 and 1906. The first wave (1878–84)
settles in Amman, Wadi al-Sir and Jerash, and the second wave (1901–06) in Na’ur, al-Zarqa, Sukhna,
Rusayfa and Suwaylih. A Turkmen community founds a village at al-Rumman in the area of Jerash.
Christian families from al-Salt establish new villages in al-Fuhays and Rumaymin while Christian settlers
from Karak settle in Madaba. Palestinian and Damascene merchants to settle in al-Salt, Karak, Ajlun and,
later, Amman.
1878 - 1881
Greece
Cities And Urban Spaces
The Iliou Melathron is designed by architect Ernst Ziller as the residence of the archaeologist Heinrich
Schliemann and his family.
1878
United Kingdom
Political Context
Uprisings in the Balkan Ottoman territories lead to disproportionate reprisals. Popular protests in Britain
oppose support for the Ottoman Empire. In contrast to the Crimean War, Britain provides no military aid
to the Ottomans in their war with Russia. Diplomatic support is rewarded however, with Britain’s
occupation of Cyprus confirmed at the Congress of Berlin.
1878
Portugal
Cities And Urban Spaces
Opening of Lisbon Botanical Garden. During the 19th century Portugal aspires to reach the level of
economic and social “progress” of other European countries in, for example, education and teaching.
Natural History Museum and the Lisbon Botanical Garden were important institutions for scientific
research and the exchange and circulation of ideas and natural knowledge.
1878
Portugal
Cities And Urban Spaces
28 September: The first electric lighting on the terrace of the Citadel of Cascais to celebrate the 15th
birthday of future King Carlos I (ruling from 1889). A ball commemorates the electric lighting premiere.
The daily press celebrate the occasion, saying that the electric light turned the entrance and the royal
residence balconies into “a clear and luminous day’’.
1878
Portugal
International Exhibitions
At the Paris “Exposition Universelle”, the Portuguese Pavilion sets up a sophisticated, emblematic
scenario, portraying the monasteries of Batalha and Jerónimos, two of the magnificent symbols of the
15th and 16th Portuguese Discoveries.
1878 - 1890
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
The anti-Socialist laws known as Sozialistengesetz prohibit socialist organisations, meetings and
publications.
1878
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
Turkey
Political Context
The Law School is opened.
1878
3 March: Russo-Turco Treaty of St Stefano defines Bulgaria, which includes present-day Bulgaria,
present-day Macedonia and northern Greece.
1878
Turkey
Political Context
13 March: Abdülhamid II dissolves parliament.
1878
Austria
Political Context
In June the signatories at the Congress of Berlin grant Austria the right to occupy and fully administer
Bosnia and Herzegovina for an undetermined period.
1879
Romania
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
18–20 January: the National Theatre of Bucharest premieres the comedy A Stormy Night by Ion Luca
Caragiale, the greatest Romanian playwright. It is Caragiale’s first staged play and is a great public
success.
1879
France
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Creation of the telephone network in France.
1879
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Economy And Trade
A British-enforced Treaty is signed to ensure the mutual surrender of fraudulently absconding debtors in
the pearling industry. It is signed by the Trucial Sheikhs in the presence of Haji Abdul Rahman, the
Residency Agent at Sharjah, and Haji Abdul al-Qasimi, the Residency Munshi who had been deputed from
Bushire to convey the directives of the British Resident.
1879
Austria
Fine And Applied Arts
Hans Makart (1840–84) designs the “Makart Parade” to celebrate the Silver wedding anniversary of the
Imperial couple, Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria and Empress Elisabeth (“Sisi”).
1879 - 1882
Egypt
Political Context
The ’Urabi Revolution, led by Colonel Ahmed ’Urabi, erupts in February 1879 and continues until 1882. It
is the first revolution of the modern age in Egypt.
1879
Spain
Rediscovering The Past
Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola and his daughter discover the cave paintings of Altamira. De Sautuola and
Juan Vilanova y Piera in an 1880 publication identify them as Palaeolithic, meeting scepticism and ridicule
until the discovery of similar paintings elsewhere results in recognition of their findings in 1902. Famous
for drawings and polychrome paintings of animals and human hands the cave is now a national museum
and World Heritage site.
1879 - 1888
Spain
Reforms And Social Changes
Pablo Iglesias founds the Partido Socialista Obrero Español (PSOE – Spanish Socialist Party) in 1879;
under his leadership the socialists institute the Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT – General Workers'
Union) in 1888, with liberals in power. At the same time the anarchist movement creates associations
that later will become trade unions.
1879
Portugal
Reforms And Social Changes
11 October: The labour association Voz do Operário is founded in Lisbon by Custódio Gomes and
Custódio Braz Pacheco, two factory workers in the tobacco industry, to defend the rights of the workers
more disrespected and threatened than ever by the tobacco industry crisis of 1879.
1879
Germany
Economy And Trade
The German Empire moves from a free-trade system to protective duty.
1879
Germany
International Exhibitions
The Great Industrial Exposition is held at the Lehrter Bahnhof in Berlin, where one of main attractions is
the first electric locomotive from Siemens & Halske.
1879
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
4 May: Judicial reform extends the administrative authority of Ministry of Justice over mixed courts.
1880 - 1890
Tunisia
Fine And Applied Arts
It was the era of eclecticism. The French Protectorate builds the regency’s infrastructure in the European
classical tradition, constructing monuments in the impressive Greco-Roman style.
1880 - 1914
Tunisia
Migrations
Italian and French farmers settle in agricultural areas of the Regency of Tunis.
1880
Romania
Economy And Trade
29 April: promulgation of the law for the founding of the National Bank of Romania.
1880
Romania
Rediscovering The Past
Grigore Tocilescu’s book Dacia before the Romans is awarded the grand prize of the Academic Society,
for the best work on the history of Dacia before the Roman conquest.
1880 - 1920
France
Economy And Trade
The industrial boom is fuelled by technological innovations (i.e. electricity, cinema, the car and
aeroplane). Advances in metallurgy results in construction of the Eiffel Tower in 1889.
1880
France
Rediscovering The Past
Excavations of French Egyptologist Gaston Maspero (1846–1916) in Egypt.
1880
Lebanon
Migrations
A small number of Lebanese people emigrate to the USA, the first of a wave of migration abroad.
1880 - 1887
Italy
Economy And Trade
Italy is hit by the international agricultural crisis and annual per capita income decreases.
1880 - 1887
Italy
Migrations
As a consequence of agricultural crisis, mass migration starts.
1880 - 1889
Italy
Migrations
Average annual Italian migration (temporary and permanent, to nearest 1,000): France 37,000; USA
24,000; Argentina 39,000; Brazil 22,000.
1880
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
Anna Maria Mozzoni and Paolina Schiff (an academic) found the League for the Promotion of Women’s
Interests, the first feminist organisation in Italy.
1880s - 1910s
Italy
Travelling
The growth of a European middle class and the improvement of transportation make tourism possible for
increasing numbers of European citizens. According to very tentative estimates, 450,000 foreign tourists
visited Italy in 1897 and 900,000 in 1911.
1880 - 1893
Greece
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Corinth Canal opens.
1880 - 1920
Greece
Migrations
Approximately 400,000 Greeks migrate to America due to widespread unemployment and economic
problems.
1880s
United Kingdom
Migrations
European Zionism initiates a small migration, mostly from Russia – especially after the pogroms – to
Palestine. Among the Jewish community in Palestine are ancestors of Jewish migrants from the 15th and
16th centuries who fled the Iberian Peninsula after their expulsion by Ferdinand and Isabella.
1880
Morocco
Political Context
The intention of the 1880 Madrid Conference, reflected in the agreements signed by Morocco under the
reign of Mulay al-Hasan I and the countries of Europe, is to enhance the benefits of reform in Morocco
and to provide a legal and regulatory framework for Mulay al-Hasan I. Following these agreements, the
European countries won the right to own land and assets throughout Morocco. The agreements were the
result of globalisation of Moroccan business.
1880 - 1910
Spain
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The emergence of musical nationalism. Various musicians and composers, such as Isaac Albéniz, Enrique
Granados and Manuel de Falla, develop musical styles identified with Spanish traditions and folklore,
including flamenco.
1880s onwards
Spain
Travelling
Travelling to North Africa, Egypt or the Turkish Empire becomes part of the leisure travels of wealthy
families of Spain.
1880
Portugal
Rediscovering The Past
Celebration of the third centenary of the death of Luís de Camões. His poetry is considered the epitome
of Portuguese literature both for The Lusiads, the epic national poem in which Vasco da Gama tells the
history of Portugal to the Samorim (king) of Calcutta upon his arrival in India in 1498, and for his love
sonnets.
1880
Portugal
Rediscovering The Past
The 11th International Congress of Anthropology and Prehistoric Archaeology is held in Lisbon. This
important conference gives international recognition to the dynamism that Portuguese archaeology has
demonstrated since 1850.
1880
Portugal
Rediscovering The Past
The remains of the poet Luís de Camões and the explorer Vasco da Gama are moved to the Jerónimos
Monastery. Vasco da Gama and Luís de Camões (north and south side respectively), the two main
representatives of the 16th-century The Lusiads epic poem, are honored and rest beside members of the
Avis dynasty buried in Jerónimos.
1880
Portugal
Cities And Urban Spaces
3 October: Barbadinhos steam pumping station is inaugurated. The water from the Alviela Canal starts to
be pumped thus increasing the water supply to Lisbon.
1880
Portugal
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of the novella O Mandarim (The Mandarin) by Eça de Queirós (Queiroz) (1845–1900).
1880 - 1900
France
Fine And Applied Arts
Trends in painting in this period include: "Post-Impressionism" (i.e. Cézanne, Gauguin, Toulouse-Lautrec,
van Gogh); Pointillism (i.e. Seurat, Signac); Symbolism (i.e. Moreau, Puvis de Chavannes, Redon); Les
Nabis (i.e. Bonnard, Denis, Sérusier, Vuillard) and Primitivism (i.e. Matisse, Rousseau).
Late 19th century - Early
20th century
France
Fine And Applied Arts
Art Nouveau, a movement of the so-called Belle Époque, favours curves and decoration inspired by plant
forms, and media such as stained glass. Art Deco, which followed in the so called Golden Twenties,
affected architecture and the arts and crafts in particular on account of its preponderance for symmetry.
1880
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Soirées de Médan, a collection of short stories by Guy de Maupassant, Émile Zola, etc., is considered
to be the Naturalist manifesto.
1880 - 1900
Germany
Fine And Applied Arts
The painting by Franz von Stuck, Die Sünde (1893), exemplifies the period in art known as PostImperialism and Symbolism.
1880 - 1914
Germany
Migrations
More than 5 million migrants from Russia and the Habsburg Empire journey through Germany on their
way to America.
Since 1880
Germany
Migrations
Foreign workers (especially from Austria-Hungary, Russia and Poland) arrive in the German Empire in
increasing numbers to work in seasonal agriculture.
From 1880
Germany
Migrations
As the process of Industrialisation in the so-called Ruhrgebiet region develops, Polish miners and
farmhands migrate to the Ruhr, which becomes a place known as Ruhrpoland.
From 1880
Germany
Migrations
Germany’s colonisation of Namibia, Tanzania, Cameroon and Togo.
1880 - 1900
Germany
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The era of “Naturalism” in literature (i.e. the works of Hauptmann, Holz and Schlaf) is characterised by a
reality without embellishment or subjective insight (the radicalisation of realism).
1880
Germany
Travelling
The dome of Cologne is completed (construction began in 1248). It is the tallest church building in the
world at the time.
1881 - 1920
Tunisia
Economy And Trade
Crises, both within the country’s social structures and the national economy, are the result of the
protectorate’s grip over all the regency’s administration.
1881 - 1883
Tunisia
Political Context
At the metropolitan palace, Muhammad Sadiq Bey signs the treaty imposed by the French Protectorate
known as the Treaty of Bardo (or Treaty of Kasser al-Sa‘id). This is followed by the Convention of Marsa
in 1883. The Regency of Tunis passes from Ottoman suzerainty to French domination.
1881 - 1884
Tunisia
Political Context
Tunisians put up stiff resistance to French occupation without any external support. The Sublime Porte,
itself threatened by the Western powers, limits the show of protest against the French occupation.
1881
France
International Exhibitions
The Paris-based International Exhibition of Electricity presents the telephone and light bulbs.
1881
France
Reforms And Social Changes
The (Jules) Ferry Law establishes free, compulsory and secular primary education for all French children.
1881
Austria
Cities And Urban Spaces
Designs for a telephone network in Vienna.
1881
Austria
Reforms And Social Changes
Construction of the telephone network in Vienna.
1881
Italy
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The first Italian telephone services run by private companies start operating.
1881
Italy
International Exhibitions
The first Italian National Industrial Exhibition is held in Milan.
1881 - 1901
Italy
Migrations
2,251,463 people migrate from Italy; 67 per cent of them go to the USA.
1881
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
At La Scala Theatre in Milan, premiere of Excelsior, mimic ballet by Luigi Manzotti, music by Romualdo
Marenco. Through 11 allegorical scenes glorifying 19th-century scientific and industrial progress (steamengine, electric light, telegraph, Suez Canal, Fréjus Rail Tunnel, etc.), it celebrates the triumph of Light
over Obscurantism.
1881
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Giovanni Verga (1840–1922) publishes the novel I malavoglia (published in English as The House by the
Medlar-Tree), which describes the life of a family of Sicilian fishermen. Verga was the most important
author of the Italian realist school known as verismo.
1881
United Kingdom
Economy And Trade
When the Ottoman Empire is declared bankrupt, an Ottoman Public Debt Commission is established
made up of an international body – mainly British, French and German – to manage the Empire’s
finances. This becomes a form of veiled European control of Turkey’s economy. This followed a similar
imposition of financial control over Egypt’s finances.
1881
Austria
Economy And Trade
The Osterreichische-Alpine Montan-Gesellschaft is founded to mine the rich iron resources of north-west
Styria.
1881
Spain
Fine And Applied Arts
Birth of Pablo Picasso in Málaga. In Spain Picasso’s birth date would be established as the boundary
between works of art in the Academic style and the avant-garde style.
1881
Portugal
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of Portugal Contemporâneo, by Joaquim Pedro de Oliveira Martins (1845–94). Detailed
analysis of the events between 1826 and 1868, it is considered the most clear-sighted study of Portugal
in the 19th century. The author makes a general criticism of Portuguese liberalism, presented as a
historical account.
1881
Portugal
Travelling
With a thorough knowledge of the African hinterland, António da Silva Porto appeals to the Sociedade de
Geografia to sponsor a plan for the scientific and commercial exploitation of Africa. The remote hinterland
was about to be discovered by explorers and Africa’s boundaries defined by the colonial powers.
1881
Germany
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Werner von Siemens develops the tram.
1881
Austria
Political Context
The alliance of the three Emperors of Germany, Russia and Austria recognise the Habsburg Empire’s
predominance in the western Balkans. In June, Austria reaches an agreement with King Milan I of Serbia,
whereby Austria promises to support an eventual Serbian expansion in the south, while Serbia agrees to
exclude any agreement with other powers without Austria’s prior approval.
1882
Tunisia
Migrations
Inauguration of the new Catholic Cathedral in Tunis, designed in the monumental Greco-Roman style, in
line with the image France intends to convey in the early days of its protectorate over the regency.
1882
Tunisia
Rediscovering The Past
The Alaoui Museum is founded in the bey’s palace in Bardo, in a wing of the complex formerly used to
host the bey’s harem.
1882 - 1888
Romania
Cities And Urban Spaces
Swiss engineers Carl Culmann and Arnold Burkly-Ziegler are contracted to develop a water supply
network for Bucharest.
1882
Romania
Cities And Urban Spaces
In Bucharest the first electric generators are installed and used to illuminate some important buildings of
the city (the Royal Palace, the Cotroceni Palace, the National Theatre), Victory Avenue and Cişmigiu Park.
1882
Romania
Rediscovering The Past
Grigore Tocilescu begins to research the remains of the Roman town Tropaeum Traiani (modern
Adamclisi in Dobruja).
1882 - 1884
Italy
Cities And Urban Spaces
On the occasion of the 1884 General Exhibition of Turin, construction of the Rocca (castle) and the Borgo
Medievale (medieval village) in Parco del Valentino (Valentino Park) in order to promote appreciation for
15th-century Piedmont architecture. In 1884, the Municipality of Turin buys part of this area, where it
will later locate the Civic Museums.
1882
Italy
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Gotthard Rail Tunnel between Italy and Switzerland opens (14.9 km). The construction work had
started in 1872.
1882
Italy
Fine And Applied Arts
Brera Picture Gallery, originally created by Maria Teresa of Austria in 1776, becomes an independent
museum.
1882
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
In order to fight malaria, Parliament approves a law on drainage of swamps. Malaria plagues about onethird of Italian territory, where 10 per cent of the population lives.
1882
Italy
Political Context
Electoral reform: the right to vote is extended to 7 per cent of the Italian population, by lowering the age
limit (from 25 to 21) and the level of income required.
1882
Italy
Political Context
The Triple Alliance formed (Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary).
1882 - 1896
Italy
Political Context
Italy’s first African war: in 1882 Italy starts colonial expansion in the Horn of Africa; in 1890, Eritrea
becomes an Italian colony. Afterwards, Italy attempts to penetrate into Ethiopia and suffers a crushing
defeat at Adwa (the biggest African victory over a colonial army): Italy loses 4,000 Italian and 2,000
colonial soldiers. The Crispi government resigns.
1882
Italy
Travelling
The municipality of Cervia (on the Adriatic Sea) builds a bathing establishment explicitly intended for the
middle class: previously a prerogative of the elite, beach tourism starts to become a more widely
practised activity.
1882 - 1898
United Kingdom
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Weaponry is developed with lethal effect during the 19th century. The Civil War in the United States
stimulates this expansion, but weapons of mass destruction – notably the Maxim gun – spread with
European imperial ambitions. A huge disparity of power is created, shown by British military victories in
Egypt (1882) and Sudan (1898).
1882
United Kingdom
Reforms And Social Changes
With the British occupation of Egypt comes growth in European-imported ideas and fashions. Egypt
becomes a significant tourist destination for wealthier Europeans. English and French –especially French
– become commonly used languages.
1882
United Kingdom
Political Context
Britain also acquires indirect control over Egypt, with an occupying army and control over Egyptian
finances and administration. Egyptian tourism flourishes and with it a superficial economic development –
an affluent class, construction of railways and building projects. However, European cultural influences in
Egypt are mostly French.
1882
Serbia
Political Context
The first king of Serbia in the modern age is Milan Obrenović, Prince (1822–82) and King (1882–89).
From the start of his independent reign, Knez Milan works to build up the military, and sides with Russia
in his foreign policy. He declares war on Turkey in 1876, but it ends in Serbia’s defeat due to poorly
prepared diplomatic policy. The signing of the Treaty of San Stefano (made between the two countries
after the Russo-Turkish War) is followed by an about-face in Knez Milan’s policy as he turns more and
more to Austria-Hungary. A decision by the Congress of Berlin in 1878 grants Serbia independence, while
the Secret Convention (between Serbia and Austria-Hungary) binds Austria-Hungary into declaring
Serbia a kingdom in 1882.
1882
Egypt
Political Context
Spain
Cities And Urban Spaces
Britain occupies Egypt.
1882
Madrid has two "extensions": the first had been designed by the Marquis of Salamanca in 1860; the
second, in 1882, is a modern design by Arturo Soria known as “Ciudad Lineal” (linear city), a plan for an
elongated urban formation. The city will consist of a series of functionally specialised parallel sectors.
1882
Portugal
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The concession for telephone lines is signed and they are first installed in Lisbon and Porto. The first
telephone list of Lisbon is published with 22 numbers located around 1.5 km from the telephone
exchange. Public telephone cabins were installed and opened from 8 a.m. to 9 p.m. though always
available to firemen, police and doctors.
1882
Portugal
Fine And Applied Arts
White Houses of Capri by naturalist painter António Carvalho da Silva Porto (1850–93) represents the
new interest in travelling and other cultures.
1882
Portugal
Reforms And Social Changes
Inauguration of the first public kindergarten in Lisbon and Porto by followers of the Froebel method. The
pupils, aged from 3 to 7 years, are divided into four age groups, each with a classroom; the plan includes
a games room, toilets, offices and a refectory. The method respected the learning rhythm of the children
and created didactic tools.
1882
France
Fine And Applied Arts
The Thinker by the sculptor Auguste Rodin.
1882
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
Robert Koch discovers the cause of tuberculosis.
1882
Turkey
Fine And Applied Arts
Birth of İbrahim Çallı (d. 1960). He was a prominent painter who was sent to Paris between 1910 and
1914 where he studied in the workshop of Fernand Cormon.
1882
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
28 September: Bayezid Kütüphânesi, the first public library in İstanbul is founded.
1883 (18 October) - 1883
(30 October)
Romania
Political Context
30 October: by signing a treaty with Austro-Hungary, to which Germany adheres the same day and Italy
in 1888, Romania becomes part of the Triple Alliance.
1883
Romania
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
6 June: the death of Romanian composer Ciprian Porumbescu, at the age of only 29. One of the melodies
he composed will be adopted for Albania’s national anthem in 1912.
1883
Italy
Cities And Urban Spaces
A credit-fuelled “construction fever” explodes in Rome and in the other urban centres.
1883
Italy
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
In Milan, the first thermoelectric power station in Europe is inaugurated.
1883
Italy
Fine And Applied Arts
Inauguration of the National Gallery of Modern Art in Rome, in the Exhibition Palace by Pio Piacentini. It
is intended to focus on “national” art.
1883 - 1914
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Sheikh Saqr II bin Khalid bin Sultan al-Qasimi, ruler of Sharjah, is also acknowledged as one of the
greatest poets of his time. He is the grandfather of the current Sheikh of Sharjah (Sheikh Sultan bin
Mohammad al-Qasimi).
1883
Austria
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Czech writer Frank Kafka is born in Prague; he dies in Klosterneuburg, Austria, in 1924.
1883 - 1903
Egypt
Economy And Trade
The Egyptian Exchange, one of the oldest stock markets in the Middle East, traces its origins to 1883
when the Alexandria Stock Exchange is established, followed by the Cairo Stock Exchange in 1903.
1883
Egypt
Travelling
Arriving in Egypt as diplomatic agent and Consul-General of Britain, Sir Evelyn Baring’s (Lord Cromer’s)
first task is to demand that Khedive Muhammad Tawfiq should abandon Sudan. Tawfiq consents
reluctantly, but having done so he then does everything he can to ensure success of the policy that
Baring has been sent to carry out.
1883 - 1926
Spain
Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of Antonio Gaudí’s buildings related to Ildefonso Cerdá's Plan and the new urban space in
Barcelona. Gaudí is the most important of the architects in the Catalan Modernismo/Modernisme
movement, which relates to European movements such as Jungendstil and Art Nouveau. Inspired by
nature, the style is mostly developed in architecture but also found in painting and decorative arts.
1883
Portugal
Travelling
A Commission of Cartography is created to prepare an atlas of all Portuguese colonies and map three
expeditions to Africa. The first expedition (1884–85), undertaken by Roberto Ivens and Hermenegildo
Capelo, starts in Moçâmedes in Angola (in present-day Namibia) aiming to reach to the east coast. The
expedition members would face risks from hunger, cold, harsh nature, the wildlife and the tsetse fly.
1883 - 1889
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
Imperial Chancellor Otto von Bismarck initiates German social laws and the basic system for a modern
social state.
1883 - 1927
Germany
Travelling
The warehouse district known as Speicherstadt Hamburg develops.
1883
Turkey
Fine And Applied Arts
Opening of the School of Fine Arts (Sanâyi-i Nefise Mektebi) by Osman Hamdi Bey. It consists of sections
for painting, sculpture and architecture.
1883
Turkey
Rediscovering The Past
Osman Hamdi Bey, Ottoman administrator and archaeologist excavates in Nemrud. Publication of his
book Le Tumulus de Nemroud-Dagh.
1883
Turkey
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Namık Kemal writes Renan Müdafanamesi (Critique of Renan), a book on Islam and science.
1883
Austria
Political Context
In October, the Austrian Emperor Franz Josef concludes a secret alliance with the Hohenzollern King of
Romania, Carol I, against Russia.
1884
Romania
Cities And Urban Spaces
12 October: Timişoara is the first European city where electric street lighting is introduced not only on
some streets, but also across the entire city. An electric plant is built and 731 incandescent lamps with
coal filament installed, covering an area of 10 km2.
1884
Romania
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The inauguration of the first railway line (Buzău–Mărăşeşti) designed and built by Romanian engineers.
1884
France
Reforms And Social Changes
Unionism (“workers’ and employers professional associations”) becomes legal in France.
1884 - 1919
Lebanon
Economy And Trade
The old Egyptian port undergoes several important changes: buildings are extended, a commercial
tribunal is constructed, and the land area is expanded by infilling with rocks brought by railway from
Nahr al-Kalb.
1884 - 1885
Italy
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
First experiments of electric street lighting in Turin and Milan.
1884
Italy
International Exhibitions
The General Italian Exhibition in Turin attracts 3 million visitors.
1884 - 1885
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
Cholera epidemic causes 7,000 deaths in Naples and 2,500 in Palermo (out of a total 21,000 deaths).
The government starts programmes of urban renewal in Naples and other towns (the most effective tool
to prevent new epidemics).
1884
Serbia
Political Context
The first Serbian railway and railway bridge is built in Belgrade.
1884
Serbia
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The first Serbian railway and railway bridge is built in Belgrade.
1884 - 1885
Portugal
Political Context
Berlin Conference called by Portugal to regulate European colonisation and convened by German
Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. The Portuguese government presents the "Pink Map”, a project uniting the
colonies of Angola and Mozambique through the corridor of land that separates them. The proposal is
rejected by England although endorsed by the majority of countries.
1884
Portugal
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Estacio Pharmacy in Porto founded in 1883 starts to produce the first pills for medication. The
preparation of manipulated medicines in the apothecaries of the Catholic monasteries and convents
(Boticas de Convento) is replaced by the production of medicines by laboratory pharmacies.
1884 - 1888
Portugal
Travelling
The Muatiânvua Expedition to Angolan’s Lunda territory led by Major Henrique de Carvalho provides
exceptional scientific data on meteorology, zoology, ethnography and linguistics and photographic
records. This second great expedition aims to counter the diversion of trade from Malanje to Zaire
implemented by other colonial countries.
1884 - 1890
Germany
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Gottlieb Daimler develops the petrol engine and Rudolf Diesel invents the diesel engine.
1884
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
The goal in founding the Society for German Colonization was to acquire colonial territories overseas.
1884 - 1885
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
Germany establishes protectorates in south-west Africa, Cameroon, Togo, East Africa and New Guinea.
1884
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
7 May: An industrial school for girls is opened in İstanbul.
1885
Romania
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
8 May: The renowned Romanian soprano Hariclea Darclée makes her debut at the Paris Opéra, as
Marguerite in Charles Gounod’s Faust.
1885
Italy
Cities And Urban Spaces
After the 1884–85 cholera epidemic hits Naples (the fourth cholera epidemic hitting the city since 1835),
the government starts a redevelopment plan to clear Naples of slums and improve its sewerage and
water systems. Similar renewal plans will be extended to other cities.
1885
Egypt
Economy And Trade
Alexandria’s Futures Market is one of the oldest in the world. The first recorded local cotton transaction
takes place in 1885 in Café de l’Europe on the Place des Consuls, later renamed Muhammad ‘Ali Square.
It is here that cotton merchants meet and cut deals based on supply and demand for the long staple,
Karnak and Menuf, or the short to medium staple, Ashmuni, Giza and Zagora. Over the years, deals
extend to cottonseed varieties such as Hull, Afifi and Sakellaridis.
1885 - 1889
Egypt
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The singer Salama Hijazi turns to acting with the Kirdahi and al-Haddad troupes. Through his
contributions, many musical theatre troupes emerge such as Aziz Eed, Naguib al-Rihani and ‘Ali alKassar. As one of the first artists to travel abroad, Hijazi achieves worldwide acclaim for his musical and
theatrical works. Warmly welcomed in Italy, Syria and Tunisia, he is granted awards of appreciation by
many international governments. Hijazi’s statue stands at the Museum of Napoli.
1885
Spain
Political Context
Death of King Alfonso XII. Alfonso XIII born posthumously. Pacto de El Pardo: agreement between
liberals and conservatives to rule the country by turns. Regency of Queen María Cristina until 1902 when
King Alfonso XIII comes of age.
1885
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Fine And Applied Arts
The earliest portrait in Macedonian art that is not part of religious depiction, a portrait of a child is
painted by Dimitar Andonov of Papradishte (1859–1954). Dimitar Andonov was one of the last
Macedonian “zographs” (icon painters) and the founder of Macedonian profane art.
1885
Portugal
Fine And Applied Arts
O Grupo Do Leão painted by Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro is a landmark in 19th-century painting both for
its quality and for its subject matter. The depicted group of artists in the Leão beer house were linked to
the Portuguese Naturalist and Realist painting movement. This work became famous and marked the
beginning of a period of great artistic activity.
1885
Portugal
International Exhibitions
“Exposition Universelle”, Antwerp. Sponsored by the Sociedade de Geografia de Lisboa and Banco
Nacional Ultramarino, the Portuguese Pavilion reflects a strong Islamic influence.
1885
Portugal
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The birth of Guilhermina Suggia (d. 1950). This great Portuguese cellist was a pupil of Pablo Casals, with
whom she lived for some years. The two were considered the world’s greatest cellists. She played as a
soloist with prestigious orchestras. She devoted the last years of her life to teaching but continued to
give concerts.
1885
Portugal
Travelling
21 June: the expedition of Roberto Ivens and Hermenegildo Capelo reaches Quelimane, Mozambique,
after 14 months. Throughout their 8,300 km expedition across the African hinterland, Ivens wrote and
drew sketches and maps, while Capelo collected specimens of plants, rocks and animals. The constant
desertions and sickness and death of the bearers increased the danger and uncertainty.
1885
Portugal
Travelling
20 September: After their return to Lisbon a triumphal reception was offered to Capelo and Ivens by
several Portuguese associations. During the solemn session organised by the Sociedade de Geografia de
Lisboa (SGL) at the Teatro Real de S. Carlos, following their lectures, the explorers receive the SGL gold
medal from King Luís I.
1885 - 1887
Portugal
Travelling
The third great expedition, undertaken by Serpa Pinto and Augusto Cardoso, aims to establish a trade
corridor between the eastern region of lakes, and the coast of Mozambique. Major Serpa Pinto fell ill and
was replaced by Augusto Cardoso who reached Quelimane after a journey of 2,500 km lasting 20
months, during which some agreements were signed with African chiefs.
1885
Lebanon
Cities And Urban Spaces
Part of the Old Serail in Zahlé is used to house the local prison, with severe overcrowding. The prison
was moved to a better location in 2009. Still known as the Old Serail, the restored monument today
serves as the Town Hall and houses the offices of the municipality and a museum illustrating Zahlé’s
history.
1886
Tunisia
Travelling
Muhammad Sadiq Bey on a visit to Algiers is received by Napoleon III.
1886
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
Legislation passed prohibiting children under the age of 9 from working in factories and mines and those
under the age of 12 from working at night.
1886
Greece
Fine And Applied Arts
Nikolaos Gyzis, one of Greece’s most important 19th-century painters, becomes professor at the
Academy of Fine Arts, Munich.
1886
Portugal
Cities And Urban Spaces
Completion of the construction of Avenida da Liberdade in Lisbon. Engineer Frederico Ressano Garcia
(1847–1911) followed Joseph Pezarat’s plans. Inspired by Haussmann’s Parisian boulevards, Avenida da
Liberdade is testimony to the economic boom of the Fontismo period, with new residential areas built for
investment and profit.
1886
Portugal
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Opening of D. Luís I road bridge over the Douro River in Porto. At the time this iconic bridge held the
record for the longest iron arch in the world (180 m.) It was a huge advance for the urban traffic network
since it allowed a road connection between Porto and Vila Nova de Gaia over the Douro.
1886
Portugal
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Augusto Hilário (1864–96), the quintessential fado singer of Coimbra, enrols at the University of Coimbra
and became a symbol of “Coimbra Serenade”. "Fado Hilário" is his best known work as a composer and
writer.
1886
Germany
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler invent the modern automobile.
Since 1886
Germany
Travelling
Seven weeks after the death of King Ludwig II in 1886, Neuschwanstein Castle – built in order that the
king could withdraw from public life – opened to the public.
1886
Turkey
Fine And Applied Arts
26 February: Mihri Müşfik Hanım, one of the first female painters of renown, is born.
1887
France
Travelling
The birth of the French Riviera, originally frequented by wealthy English patrons.
1887 - 1918
Austria
Migrations
The son of an Austrian general, Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha becomes King of Bulgaria; he
leaves Bulgaria and immigrates to Germany in 1918.
1887 - 1906
Jordan
Reforms And Social Changes
In 1887 a land register is established for the district of Ajlun. In the district of al-Balqa communal land is
converted to private ownership. In 1906 the land register is extended to southern regions including alSalt, Karak, Tafila and Ma’an. As a consequence many agricultural villages are founded and re-founded in
the area between Amman and Karak, leading to a significant increase in agricultural production,
especially cereal crops.
1887
Italy
Economy And Trade
Adoption of a protectionist policy aimed at boosting industrial development.
1887
Italy
Economy And Trade
Federation of Italian Cooperatives is funded (from 1893 known as the League of Cooperatives).
1887
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
After long silence, Verdi composes a new opera on a text by Arrigo Boito: Othello, based on
Shakespeare’s tragedy. In Othello, Verdi adopts a more fluent narrative structure that goes beyond the
traditional division into separate units (arias, duets, concertatos, choirs).
1887 - 1914
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
Thanks to improved public health services and living conditions there has been a strong decrease in the
annual number of deaths by disease since 1887 (e.g. deaths from measles have decreased by 73
percent; from diptheria by 86 per cent; from smallpox by 99 per cent).
1887
Egypt
Cities And Urban Spaces
El-Hakaneia Palace on Manshieh Square in Alexandria is designed by Alfonso Maniscalco in the BeauxArts tradition. Constructed as the seat of the “Mixed Tribunals” the building is still used as a courthouse
today.
1887
Portugal
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of A Relíquia (The Relic) by Eça de Queirós. The novel criticises the hypocrisy of the
Portuguese society.
1887
Portugal
Travelling
The Naval Academy is founded for teaching and research on Portuguese tropical medicine. Its purpose is
to provide access to tropical medicine for general medical students and as a specialty for naval doctors.
The Academy had a small laboratory for some diagnostic tests.
1887
Germany
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Emil Berliner invents the phonograph.
1887
Lebanon
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The foundation, under Wassa Pasha’s rule, of the port of Beirut on the eastern part of the Saint George
Bay on Beirut’s northern Mediterranean cost, west of Beirut River. It is one of the largest and busiest
ports on the eastern Mediterranean.
1887
Turkey
Rediscovering The Past
Osman Hamdi Bey excavates in Saida.
1888 - 1892
Tunisia
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Establishment of the Tunisian Post and Telegraphs Office; during this time the first Tunisian postage
stamp was issued and the Hôtel des postes (Post Office building) was inaugurated in Tunis.
1888 - 1893
Tunisia
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Completion of the Port of La Goulette; a large, modern complex accessible to large vessels, brings
development to the city of Tunis.
1888 - 1893
Tunisia
Economy And Trade
Completion of the Port of La Goulette. After five years in construction, the port complex opens to trade
on 28 May 1893.
1888
Austria
Reforms And Social Changes
Austria’s Legislation is passed for the mandatory insurance of workers (employees).
1888 - 1889
Italy
Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of Piazza Esedra (now Piazza della Repubblica) in Rome, designed by Gaetano Koch. The
newly built palaces with porticos around the square are opposite the Terme di Diocleziano (Baths of
Diocletian) and connect the area of Termini railway station to via Nazionale, providing an attractive
entrance to the city.
1888 - 1890
Italy
Economy And Trade
Italy
Migrations
Tariff war with France.
1888
The first law on migration introduces measures aimed at preventing a married woman from migrating
without her husband’s consent; at preventing men to migrate to avoid military service; and at granting
migrants some protection against abuses.
1888
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
First comprehensive law on health services.
1888
Austria
Cities And Urban Spaces
The Burgtheater (National Theatre) moves from its former residence at the Hofburg (Imperial Castle) to
purpose-built premises at the Ringstrasse.
1888
Spain
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Building of a submarine (aparato de profundidades) designed by a naval officer, Isaac Peral. The boat
(22 x 2.87 metres) is driven by electric engines and has a periscope and three torpedos. In spite of a
successful test, the Spanish Navy decides not to put the prototype into production.
1888
Spain
International Exhibitions
The Barcelona Universal Exhibition held in the Parc de la Ciutadella from April to December attracts
exhibitors from 22 countries and more than two million visitors. The park displays monuments in the
Modernismo/Modernisme and Neo-Mudéjar styles.
1888
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Migrations
A movement to awaken national awareness leads to the establishment of many independent associations
of Macedonian emigrants, such as the Macedonian Literary Society established by Gjorgji Pulevski in
Sofia in 1888.
1888
Portugal
International Exhibitions
Portuguese Industrial Exhibition in Avenida da Liberdade in Lisbon.
1888
Portugal
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of Os Maias by Eça de Queirós. A mature romance and perhaps his best known. Focused on
the saga of the Maia family through three generations, it debates the issue of the country’s destiny, in
the context of the Constitutionalist ennobled bourgeoisie, whose good intentions end up capsizing.
1888
Portugal
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Birth of Fernando Pessoa (d. 1935) is the classic author of Portuguese modernism. His books are
published under different names, which he called heteronyms (not pseudonyms), each one corresponding
to a cycle of experimental attitudes, which unfold in contradictions.
1888
Portugal
Travelling
The neo-Manueline Palace of Bussaco, modelled on the Manueline Belém Tower of Lisbon is
commissioned by King Carlos I as a royal retreat. It combines the architectural fashion of castle
romanticism (German Burgenromantik) with the neo-Manueline gothic style that evokes the Portuguese
Discoveries.
1888
Germany
Rediscovering The Past
Julius Stinde writes Frau Buchholz im Orient. He has already documented the cities of Cairo, Jerusalem,
Athens, and Constantinople (now Istanbul, Turkey).
1888
Turkey
Economy And Trade
The Agricultural Bank (Ziraat Bankası) is founded as the first state-funded bank of the empire.
1888
Turkey
Travelling
12 August: Direct rail connection is established between Paris and İstanbul.
1889
Romania
International Exhibitions
The two Romanian pavilions at the International Exposition in Paris – a restaurant and a pavilion for wine
tasting – are built by architect Ion Mincu, who uses elements of traditional rustic Romanian architecture.
1889 - 1900
Romania
Rediscovering The Past
Archaeologist Alexandru Odobescu publishes in France a book about the Pietroasa Treasure (a historical
description and a study on antique silver work).
1889
France
International Exhibitions
The Exposition universelle of 1889 in Paris is the tenth registered World Fair held from 6 May to 31
October. It commemorates the French Revolution on the occasion of its centenary. The Eiffel Tower is
built for this Expo.
1889
France
Political Context
The World Fair in Paris showcases the development of the latest industrial processes, and the Eiffel Tower
is constructed for it.
1889
Italy
Rediscovering The Past
Establishment of the National Roman Museum, in the stunning structure of the Terme di Diocleziano
(Baths of Diocletian) in Rome.
1889
Italy
Rediscovering The Past
Establishment of the Museum of the pre-Roman Antiquities of Latium in the 16th-century Villa Giulia, in
Rome. The museum would be later renamed the National Etruscan Museum.
1889
Greece
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Founding of the first commercial unit for electricity in Athens. The Royal Palace was the first building in
the capital to benefit from electric lighting.
1889
Austria
Cities And Urban Spaces
The Deutsche Volkstheater (German People’s Theatre) opens in Vienna.
1889
Austria
Reforms And Social Changes
The Social Democratic Party is founded during the Hainfeld Congress.
1889
Portugal
Political Context
10 October: Coronation of King Carlos I (28 September 1863 – 1 February 1908) Despite the King’s
attempt to reform the political system, the growing urban influence of the Republican Party and the
people´s discontent were fostered by cash payments made to the Royal House.
1889
Portugal
International Exhibitions
At the Paris “Exposition Universelle” Bordalo Pinheiro’s (1846–1905) famous ceramics decorating the
interior of the Portuguese Pavilion are a main attraction for the cosmopolitan visitor.
1889
France
Fine And Applied Arts
The inauguration of the Eiffel Tower and the use of iron in architectural structures.
1889 - 1917
Germany
Travelling
Kaiser Wilhelm II visits the Ottoman Empire three times, in 1889, 1898 and 1917. On his second official
tour he visits Constantinople, Haifa, Jaffa, Jerusalem, Beirut and Damascus, largely to show his support
for Ottoman sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid II whose Empire was already unstable. The strong connection between
the countries is further cemented by a gift from the Kaiser to ‘Abd al Hamid: a “German fountain” that
stands in Jerusalem to this day.
1889
Turkey
International Exhibitions
Although the Ottoman government does not participate in the 1889 Paris Exhibition, the architecture of
the Sultan Ahmed Fountain (from the Vienna Exhibition in 1873) is recycled in the exhibition in the
Pavilion of Turkish Tobacco.
1890 - 1920
Tunisia
Cities And Urban Spaces
The 20th century is undoubtedly one of urbanisation. Outside the Arab medina a new city develops to
host the many Europeans who have arrived to promote development of the colonial economy.
1890 - 1900
Tunisia
Fine And Applied Arts
Construction of public and private buildings in the arabisance style, which proposes a synthesis of
European architectural styles with Arab and Spanish-North African architecture.
1890 - 1910
Tunisia
Migrations
Emergence of a new European-inspired city outside the Arab medina with a multitude of buildings built in
the European style.
1890 - 1892
Romania
Cities And Urban Spaces
In Bucharest a fire tower is built from the plans of the chief architect of the city, George Mandrea. It is
both a watchtower, used by firemen to keep the city under observation to rapidly intervene in case of a
fire, and a reservoir for water distribution in the eastern part of Bucharest.
1890
France
Reforms And Social Changes
On 1 May, Labour Day is celebrated for the first time.
1890s
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Political Context
There is a notable increase in the activity of foreign powers – especially Ottoman Turkey, France and
Russia – in the Gulf region. Germany also makes its first appearance. The main interests for all of them
are economic and geostrategic.
1890
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Cavalleria rusticana by Pietro Mascagni (1863–1945) has a great success, marking the beginning of
verismo (Italian realism) in music, which intends to portray the world of peasants and the poor through
strong and passionate drama. The singing style changes radically, leaving behind the aesthetics of bel
canto and turning to reciting, even shouting, and spoken parts in the most exciting dramatic moments.
1890
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
For the first time, trade unions organise celebrations for May Day as the International Worker’s Day.
1890
Egypt
Reforms And Social Changes
The Alexandria Sporting Club is built; it is one of the oldest clubs in Egypt.
1890 - 1920
Spain
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
“Alhambrismo” in music. From 1890 many composers produce pieces showing the influence of the
Alhambra, e.g.Chapi's Los Gnomos de la Alhambra (1889), Debussy’s Lindaraja (composed in 1901) and
La puerta del vino (1912–13). The most important piece is the first movement of Noches en los Jardines
de España (1909–15) by Manuel de Falla, titled "En los Jardines del Generalife".
1890
Spain
Reforms And Social Changes
Suffrage established for men aged 25 years and above. Although the 1812 Constitution had theoretically
established “universal” suffrage for men, during most of the 19th century it had been limited to men
above a certain economic level. It was not until 1931, under the Second Republic, that the suffrage
became truly universal, including women.
1890 - 1908
Portugal
Political Context
The British Ultimatum (11 January 1890) pressures Portugal to withdraw from southern Africa resulting
in popular outrage and unrest. The bankruptcy of 1892, anti-monarchic sentiment against King Carlos I,
the cost of living and unfulfilled popular needs are major drivers of the Republican movement.
1890
Portugal
Cities And Urban Spaces
The railway station of Rossio (Lisbon) designed by the Portuguese architect José Luís Monteiro, begun in
1886 and inaugurated on 23 November of 1890. Located in the historical centre, the Rossio station
follows the neo-Manueline architectural style and is an important building of the 19th-century late
Romantic style.
1890 - 1899
Italy
Migrations
Average annual Italian migration (temporary and permanent, to nearest 1,000): France 26,000, USA
51,000; Argentina 37,000; Brazil 58,000.
1890 - 1910
Germany
Fine And Applied Arts
The paintings by Heinrich Vogeler, Das Konzert (Sommerabend) (1893), and Gustav Klimt, Der Kuss
(1908), exemplify the period in art known as Jugendstil or Art Nouveau.
1890s - Around 1900
Germany
Migrations
After the United States, the German Empire was the most popular country of immigration.
1890s
Germany
Migrations
The Prussian policy of Abwehrpolitik sees Polish seasonal workers in agriculture forced to leave the
German Empire during winter.
1890 - 1910
Germany
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The era of Modern literature (i.e. the works of Hesse, Hauptmann, Mann and Zweig) is characterised by
pluralism, the merging of Art Nouveau, Symbolism, Impressionism, etc.
1890s
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
Sigmund Freud formulates his theory of psychoanalysis in Vienna.
1890
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
Emperor Wilhelm II dismisses Bismarck; and so begins the era of the emperor’s personal regiment.
1890
Lebanon
Cities And Urban Spaces
Khan Antun Bey Square evolves after the construction of the great Ottoman jetty and quays from 1890
that changes the design of the urban area.
1890
Turkey
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
16 September: Sailing frigate Ertuğrul sinks while returning from a goodwill voyage to Japan off the
coast of Oshima in a typhoon that kills all but 69 of its 609 crew.
1890
Turkey
Fine And Applied Arts
Müfide Kadri is born (d. 1912). One of the early female painters, she took private classes from Osman
Hamdi Bey.
1891
Tunisia
Economy And Trade
Monetary reform: the administration of the protectorate decides to replace the Tunisian monetary unit
the “piastre” with the French Franc.
1891
Austria
Fine And Applied Arts
The Museum of Applied Arts in Vienna purchases the Karabakh carpet in Istanbul.
1891
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
First Chambers of Labour (territorial trade unions) founded in Milan.
1891
Greece
Economy And Trade
An insurance company for sea transportation is founded on the island of Chios.
1891
Portugal
Reforms And Social Changes
October: Domitilia de Carvalho is the first woman to study at the University of Coimbra. She is obliged to
wear black, sober costumes and a discreet hat to go unnoticed among her male colleagues. A brilliant
student she graduated in mathematics (1894), philosophy (1895) and medicine (1904).
1891
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
Founding of the Pan-German League (Allgemeine Deutsche Verband; since 1894 the General German
Association or Alldeutscher Verband) to advance an active, nationalistic German foreign policy in Europe
and overseas.
1891
Turkey
Fine And Applied Arts
Fausto Zonaro (1854–1929) arrives in İstanbul as an independent artist. He receives the title of court
painter in 1896.
1891
Turkey
Rediscovering The Past
13 June: The Archaeology Museum in Istanbul is opened.
1891 - 1892
Turkey
Rediscovering The Past
Osman Hamdi Bey excavates in Lagina.
1891
Turkey
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Ahmed Vefik Paşa dies. Besides his administrative positions, he is regarded as a precursor of Turkish
cultural nationalism and remembered also for contributing to the development of Western theatre in the
empire by translating French plays.
1892 - 1914
Tunisia
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Development of the railway network connects the city of Tunis with its hinterland. The network serves
the large cities by connecting them with the agricultural centres created by colonisation.
1892 - 1914
Tunisia
Economy And Trade
Development of a railway network connecting the city of Tunis with its hinterland.
1892 - 1895
Romania
Political Context
In 1892 a delegation of 237 Romanians sends Emperor Franz Joseph a Memorandum protesting against
the discriminatory effects of the union of Transylvania with Hungary (1867). In 1893 the signatories of
the petition are sent for trial at the end of which, in May 1894, they are sentenced to prison. However, in
1895 the Emperor amnesties them.
1892
France
Rediscovering The Past
Excavations at Delos and Delphi by the French School of Athens.
1892
France
Reforms And Social Changes
The Law on Health and Hygiene at work is passed.
1892
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Political Context
The British government effectively becomes the ruler of the Trucial Coast when the sheikhs are forced to
pledge that neither they nor their descendants will enter agreements with or grant territorial rights to
any government or their representatives other than Britain.
1892 - 1898
Italy
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Hydroelectric power plants are built in Tivoli (1892) and Paderno d’Adda (1898) and the power they
generated is transported to, respectively, Rome and Milan.
1892
Italy
Political Context
Italian Socialist Party founded.
1892
Egypt
Cities And Urban Spaces
Muntazah Palace is constructed for Khedive ‘Abbas, which he uses as both a hunting lodge and residence
for his companion.
1892
Egypt
Travelling
The Greco-Roman Museum of Alexandria is created.
1892
Spain
International Exhibitions
European and American Historical Exhibitions held in the Palacio de la Biblioteca y Museos Nacionales,
Madrid, celebrating the fourth centennial of the discovery of America.
1892
Portugal
Cities And Urban Spaces
18 August: Praça de Touros do Campo Pequeno (Campo Pequeno Bullring) opens its doors with a gala
show. Built in an area assigned to the Casa Pia (educational establishment for children in need) by the
city of Lisbon in 1889 the bullring was designed by the architect António José Dias da Silva (1848–1912)
and inspired by Madrid's bullring.
1892
Portugal
Economy And Trade
13 June: bankruptcy is declared in Portugal causing tremendous popular outrage. The deficit in the public
finances, the dependence on foreign funding and incipient industrialisation are contributing factors to this
crisis.
1892
Turkey
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Fatma Âliye (1862–1939), female novelist and publisher, publishes Muhâdarât (Reminiscence). Her
feminist attitude was apparent in her rejection of marriage for economic reasons, believing in the need
for women to join the workforce.
1893
Qatar
Political Context
The Battle of al-Wajba is a victory for Sheikh Jassim and Qatar. This represents a decisive moment in the
nation's history, asserting Qatar's independence from direct Ottoman interference.
1893
Tunisia
Reforms And Social Changes
Creation of the first analytical laboratory as part of the services that later became the Pasteur Institute,
initially providing a rabies treatment service, and then offering a vaccination centre.
1893
Austria
Rediscovering The Past
The Egyptian authorities give the head of a Sphinx of Sesostris III to the Kunsthistorisches Museum in
Vienna.
1893 - 1895
Italy
Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of Piazza Vittorio Emanuele (today Piazza della Repubblica) in Florence, after clearing the
area of the Ancient Market.
1893 - 1894
Italy
Economy And Trade
A comprehensive law on banking establishes the Bank of Italy, which starts operating on 1 January 1894.
1893
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
At the age of 80, Verdi composes his last opera, Falstaff, an opera buffa that opens new avenues towards
the theatre of the 20th century. The music underscores all the subtle nuances of the psychology of the
different characters.
1893
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Manon Lescaut by Giacomo Puccini (1858–1924) has a great success in Turin and Puccini becomes the
most promising opera composer of the new generation.
1893
Greece
Rediscovering The Past
Foundation of the National Archaeological Museum of Athens.
1893
Portugal
Rediscovering The Past
Creation of the Portuguese Ethnological Museum, which in 1906 opened its doors to the public at the
Jerónimos Monastery in the Belém area of Lisbon. The museum is currently designated the National
Museum of Archaeology.
1893 - 1902
Turkey
Migrations
72,000 Muslims and Jews are forced out of Bulgaria. Unlike earlier migrants, they are resettled in towns
in Thrace as well as in rural areas of central and eastern Anatolia.
1893
Turkey
International Exhibitions
At the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago, the main Ottoman pavilion refers to the Sultan Ahmed
Fountain, but it experiments with a different approach, being designed as an exhibition building.
1894 - 1898
France
Political Context
The Dreyfus Affair: Captain Dreyfus is unjustly accused of espionage, is militarily degraded, and then
deported at the end of the trial. The writer Émile Zola denounces this situation in a pamphlet entitled
J’accuse. The case divides France; it is recognised that Dreyfus is innocent.
1894 - 1913
Italy
Economy And Trade
The chemical industry takes off. The production of fertilisers grows from 85,700 tons in 1894 to 1 million
tons in 1913.
1894
Italy
Travelling
The Touring Club d’Italia is founded. Its main goal is “to make Italians know Italy”. It conceives of
tourism as a tool for the cultural growth and modernisation of the country.
1894 - 1908
Morocco
Political Context
Having ascended to the throne too young, Mulay ‘Abd al ‘Aziz must act under the regency of his father
mulay al-Hasan I’s chamberlain for almost six years. Upon his father death in 1900, Mulay ‘Abd al ‘Aziz
took up the reins of power and made clear his desire to restructure the governing institution of Morocco,
the Makhzen. He worked on the modernisation of the army and stabilisation of the currency. He
relaunched the project to ensure universal application of the tartib tax, which he wanted to apply to all
foreigners and protégés. This project naturally displeased the consular corps.
1894 - 1900
Egypt
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Qasim Amin publishes his book Les Egyptiens in French in 1894. In it he rejects the negative claims
against the traditions of Oriental society made by Duke Drocom in his book, L’Egypte et les Egyptiens. In
defence of Islam, Amin compares the rights of women according to Islam with those of civilized European
women. In 1899, he then publishes The Emancipation of Women, which is severely criticized. In 1900,
Amin refutes the arguments of his critics with The New Woman, a work that provides fresh fuel to his
ardent battle for the emancipation of women.
1894 - 1900
France
Fine And Applied Arts
The Salon des Cent (Salon of the One Hundred) neither focused on any one school of art nor paid
attention to any of the official bodies.
1894
Germany
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Otto Lilienthal invents the glider.
1895
Romania
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Romanian Maritime Service, the first civil naval institution of Romania, is founded. It is intended to
buy and build ships and it ensures passenger and freight transportation on the route Brăila–Constanţa–
Istanbul, later extended to Alexandria and to ports on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean: Pireu,
Smyrna, Haifa and Beirut.
1895
Romania
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
9 December: the first electric tramway is introduced in Bucharest.
1895
Romania
Economy And Trade
Promulgation of the Mining Law, which stipulates separation between the ownership of land and of the
subsoil resources, which, except for oil, belong to the state. Concessions of oil exploitation by the state
(in cases where the owner of the land did not want to do it) are regulated.
1895
Austria
Rediscovering The Past
A statue of an athlete is found in Ephesus, Turkey; ‘Abd al-Hamid II, the Ottoman Sultan at the time,
gives it as a gift to the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I.
1895
Italy
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Gugliemo Marconi makes the first successful experiments of radio broadcasts.
1895 - 1913
Italy
Economy And Trade
Major growth of iron and steel industry: cast iron production rises from 9,000 tons in 1895 to 426,000
tons in 1913; steel production rises from 50,000 tons in 1895 to 933,000 tons in 1913.
1895
Italy
International Exhibitions
Opening of the First International Art Exhibition of the City of Venice, known as the Venice Biennale. The
exhibition – organised to bring the city out of isolation – meets with great public acclaim (224,000
visitors).
1895
Greece
Political Context
Prime Minister Charilaos Trikoupis declares that Greece is bankrupt.
1895
Portugal
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The first car in Portugal, a Panhard et Levassor, is personally imported from Paris by the fourth Count of
Avilez. The Lisbon Customs did not know how to tax this awkward item. Was it a farm machine or a
locomotive? They chose the second option. Count Jorge Avilez drove from Lisbon to his farm in Santiago
do Cacém at 15 km an hour.
1895
France
Fine And Applied Arts
Castel Béranger by Hector Guimard is in the Art Nouveau style.
1895
France
Fine And Applied Arts
The Maison de l'Art nouveau by Samuel Bing.
1895
Germany
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Roentgen ray (X-Ray) is discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen.
1895
Turkey
Rediscovering The Past
German archaeologist Theodor Wiegand begins to excavate ancient Greek city of Priene. He would start
to excavate in Miletos in 1896.
1896
Tunisia
Reforms And Social Changes
Creation of Khaldunia. The purpose of this institution located near the Zaytuna Mosque was to spread
scientific knowledge among the Arab communities, and especially among students of Zaytuna University.
Its name refers to the great Arab thinker Ibn Khaldun.
1896
France
Travelling
Tsar Nicolas II visits France and inaugurates the Pont Alexandre III bridge in Paris.
1896
Austria
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Austrian composer Anton Bruckner dies.
1896
Austria
Political Context
Russia recognises Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, a former Austrian officer, as the new Prince of Bulgaria.
1896 - 1914
Italy
Economy And Trade
Sustained economic growth (except for short crises in 1900 and 1907–08); industrialisation makes a leap
forward.
1896
Greece
Travelling
Revival of the Olympic Games.
1896
Portugal
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
First X-ray made in Portugal by Henrique Teixeira Bastos, Professor of Physics at Coimbra University. In
1895 Roentgen had discovered X-rays and the news was published in Portugal in the newspaper
Novidades in January 1896. This first X-ray of the right hand of a boy with bone tuberculosis was made
one week after.
1896
Germany
International Exhibitions
The Great Industrial Exposition opens at Treptower Park, south of central Berlin.
1896
Turkey
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Recaîzâde Mahmud Ekrem publishes the novel Araba Sevdası (A Carriage Affair). He was prominent in
literary circles and promoted the Westernisation of Ottoman Turkish literature.
1897
Tunisia
Reforms And Social Changes
Creation of the French civil hospital provides a surgery and two general medical services to meet the
needs of the European population from the outset.
1897
Romania
Fine And Applied Arts
The National School of Architecture is founded as a section of the School of Fine Arts in Bucharest. It
becomes an independent institution in 1904, under the name the Superior School of Architecture.
1897 - 1899
Romania
Travelling
Romanian biologist and speleologist Emil Racoviță participates in the Belgian Antarctic Expedition, the
first winter research expedition in the Antarctica region.
1897 - 1898
Italy
Political Context
Widespread demonstrations and riots against high bread price. The government uses the army to repress
protests: in Milan 85 demonstrators are killed.
1897
Greece
Political Context
Defeat of the Greek Army during the Greek–Turkish War.
1897
Austria
Fine And Applied Arts
Gustav Klimt (1867–1918) founds, along with other Viennese artists, the Viennese Secession, a society
of Austrian Art Nouveaux artists.
1897 - 1909
United Kingdom
Cities And Urban Spaces
Charles Rennie Mackintosh (b. Glasgow, Scotland 1868; d. London, England 1928), artist, designer and
architect, is perhaps best known for the Charles Rennie Mackintosh building at Glasgow School of Art,
which was built in two stages (1897–9 and 1907–9) due to lack of funding. Designed in the Art and
Crafts style, and owing much to Scotland’s baronial tradition, Mackintosh eschewed the architectural
styles of Greece and Rome in his design. Achieving the acclaim he felt he deserved in Europe,
Mackintosh’s originality was never fully appreciated in the United Kingdom, except by a few loyal
supporters and patrons, during his lifetime.
1897 - 1904
Germany
Fine And Applied Arts
Formation of the Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum (now the Bode Museum), proposed by Wilhelm von Bode, and
built by Ernst von Ihne and Max Hasak.
1897
Lebanon
Cities And Urban Spaces
On 9 January 1897 and in celebration of the 10th anniversary of the Ottoman Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid II’s
coronation, a clock tower is built near the Grand Serail, Beirut, to make up for the absence of a public
clock indicating mandatory Muslim prayer times especially as many foreign institutions had built
Western-style clock towers.
1898 - 1899
Romania
Travelling
Bazil G. Assan is the first Romanian to go on an expedition around the world, taking the route
Constanța–Istanbul–Cairo–Ceylon–China–Japan–Pacific Ocean–USA–Europe.
1898
Italy
Political Context
Anarchist Gaetano Bresci kills the King Umberto I, in revenge for the protesters killed in Milan in 1898.
Victor Emanuel III becomes King of Italy.
1898
United Kingdom
Political Context
Sudan is in possession of the Egyptians until a Sudanese revolt under the Mahdi severs the connection. It
is brought back to Anglo-Egyptian rule with a military conquest led by an Egyptian army officered by the
British. Control of Sudan facilitated British colonial expansion in Sub-Saharan Africa.
1898
Egypt
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Shahin Pasha Aqueduct, constructed under Muhammad ‘Ali and located between the Omar Shah and
Tukuz Tamar (Darb el-Jamamiz) aqueducts, is infilled with earth.
1898 - 1902
Egypt
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The British begin construction of the first Dam across the Nile in 1898 and work continues to 1902.
Opened on 10 December 1902, the Aswan Low Dam is a gravity (masonry) buttress dam on the Nile in
Aswan.
1898
Spain
Reforms And Social Changes
The lost of the last overseas territories causes a big crisis. It is the moment for important writers and
intellectuals such as Unamuno and Joaquin Costa, all members of what is called "Generación del ‘98”
(Generation of ’98) to analyse the reasons for the crisis and look critically at Spain's past and its future.
1898
Portugal
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The teaching of astronomy as an individual science starts, taking advantage of the astronomy teaching
experience acquired since 1837 at the Lisbon Polytechnic School. This school was meant to provide
training for cartography surveys and military preparation.
1898
Portugal
Economy And Trade
Industrialist Alfredo da Silva refounds CUF (Companhia União Fabril), in Barreiro in the beginning of the
20th century. CUF produced soap, candles and vegetable oils, later becoming a leader of the fertilizer
and other chemical products sector. Da Silva gave residential quarters and free education to all his
employees nationwide.
1898 - 1917
Germany
Rediscovering The Past
Foundation of the Deutsche-Orient Gesellschaft (DOG) in Berlin is to promote research in the field of
“Oriental” archaeology and bring it to a wider audience. One of the first archaeological excavations
undertaken by the DOG was in Babylon, with the discovery of the Ishtar Gate (now at the Museum of the
Ancient Near East in Berlin). DOG was responsible for finds at Tell el-Amarna, the capital of the Pharaonic
Empire where the famous bust of Queen Nefertiti was found (now at the Neues Museum). Kaiser Wilhelm
II assumed patronage of DOG in 1901.
1898 - 1900
Germany
Political Context
Development and rearmament (Aufrüstung) of the German Navy.
1898
Turkey
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Ayşe Sıdıka (d.1903), the first female Ottoman pedagogue, publishes Usûl-i Talim ve Terbiye Dersleri
(Lectures on Methods of Teaching and Education). She was the instructor for courses in geography,
ethics and handicrafts at the Female Teachers’ Seminary in İstanbul.
1899
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Economy And Trade
By 1899 private British, French and other European arms dealers import some 20,000 rifles into the
Trucial Coast region and Oman annually.
1899 - 1904
Italy
Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of the new Synagogue in Rome (architects: Vincenzo Costa and Osvaldo Armanni), an
imposing building of eclectic style, with decorative elements inspired by Assyro-Babylonian architecture.
1899 - 1920s
Italy
Cities And Urban Spaces
Construction of some remarkable Liberty-style buildings, such as the Villino Florio in Palermo and the
new building of Palazzo Montecitorio (seat of the Italian Chamber of Deputies in Rome), both by Ernesto
Basile, some pavilions for the 1902 national exhibition in Turin, and the small Coppedè neighbourhood in
Rome. Overall, however, Liberty style leaves a smaller mark on Italian cities than eclecticism.
1899
Italy
In Turin, Giovanni Agnelli founds the car factory FIAT.
Economy And Trade
1899
Egypt
Cities And Urban Spaces
Prince Muhammad ‘Ali Tawfiq is responsible for opening the Al-Manyal Palace Museum in 1899, which is
set in a large garden of thirty feddans (approx 31 acres).
1899
Egypt
Economy And Trade
The National Bank of Egypt introduces notes in denominations of 50 piasters, and one, five, ten, 50 and
100 Egyptian pounds.
1899
Egypt
Migrations
British diplomat Alfred Mitchell-Innes was appointed Under-Secretary of State for Finance in Egypt.
1899
Egypt
Travelling
British diplomat Alfred Mitchell-Innes is appointed Undersecretary of State for Finance in Egypt.
1900 - 1920
Tunisia
Fine And Applied Arts
Art Nouveau marks the city’s landscape.
1900 - 1910
Tunisia
Migrations
The colonial era: social and cultural life are organised around Europeans striving for modernity and
accustomed to the cultural life of European cities; hence construction of theatres, hotels, casinos, etc.
1900s
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
British records note that an industry of weaving fine sheep’s-wool ‘aba’ (cloaks) had been developed in
Sharjah but, as insufficient quantities were being made to meet local demand, they were also imported
from Bahrain and al-Ahsa. Most of the cloth used in the Trucial States at the time was imported from
India and elsewhere.
1900 - 1930s
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Reforms And Social Changes
Wealthy pearl merchants from the Arabian Gulf establish new educational institutions on the Trucial
Coast. In addition to religious subjects, the schools – housed in purpose-built structures with proper
classrooms – offer an expanded curriculum. In Sharjah, al-Taimiyyah (later al-Islah) and al-Nabudah
schools are established.
1900 - 1930s
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Reforms And Social Changes
Sharjah’s Taimiyyah School, which also incorporated a library, would send promising students farther
afield to continue their studies. Students from outside Sharjah were offered free board and
accommodation at the school.
1900s - 1915
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Reforms And Social Changes
Media from Egypt and India critical of British politics penetrates the Trucial Coast. The Cairo-based
newspapers Al-Mu’ayyad and Al-Liwa have numerous subscribers on the Trucial Coast.
1900
Romania
International Exhibitions
At the International Exposition in Paris, Romania has four pavilions, the central one designed by French
architect Jean-Camille Formigé.
1900
Romania
Travelling
Al. Saabner-Tuduri publishes a book on the Mineral Waters and the Spas of Romania, the first paper
about Romanian balneology, which used to be a very important component of Romanian tourism.
1900
France
Economy And Trade
The first line of the Paris Metro is built for the second Universal Exhibition.
1900
France
International Exhibitions
The World Fair in Paris as the symbol of the Belle Époque with its theme “the balance of a century”. The
exhibition bequeaths to Paris several buildings including the Petit Palais and the Grand Palais.
1900
France
Reforms And Social Changes
The law on the working conditions of women and children (Millerand Law) decreases the working day to
11 hours.
1900
Lebanon
Migrations
A group of about a dozen Lebanese, dissatisfied with the dismal prospect of earning a livelihood from the
stubborn northern Lebanese soil, set out to stake their claim on the mythical riches in the new land of
Australia.
1900 - 1908
Jordan
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Hijaz Railway is developed by ‘Abd al-Hamid II (1876–1908) for various reasons, not least of which is to
strengthen the Empire’s control in an area that is the only window for the Ottomans to trade with the Far
East after the British took control of the major international trade routes (Suez Canal and Arab-Persian
Gulf). Supported by Germany, which is seeking control in this area to oppose the British, work on the
project, and inauguration of stations coincides with the annual anniversary of the Sultan’s accession on 1
September. The line reaches Amman in 1903, Ma’an in 1904 and Mudawwara in 1906. The 1,450 km
railway reaches Medina in 1908.
1900 - 1909
Italy
Economy And Trade
Annual per capita income increases by 18.5% during the decade because of industrialisation.
1900
Italy
International Exhibitions
In the 19th and 20th centuries, Italian companies participate in many international exhibition, such as
the 1900 Paris World Fair.
1900 - 1909
Italy
Migrations
Italians who had migrated to the USA, Argentina and Brazil repatriate to Italy in large numbers during
the 1900s: the annual average is 119,857 from the USA; 31,712 from Argentina; 19,864 from Brazil.
1900
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
Law on “state quinine” passed: in order to fight malaria, the state will produce quinine and sell it at a low
price not only in the 5,000 pharmacies, but also in the 27,000 tobacconists.
1900
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Birth of the celebrated poet Mubarak bin Saif al-Nakhi in Sharjah.
1900
Greece
Fine And Applied Arts
Foundation of the National Gallery in Athens. Its chief curator is the acclaimed painter Georgios Iakovidis.
1900
Egypt
Travelling
On a visit to Britain, ‘Abbas Hilmi II tells the authorities that he thinks the British have carried out good
work in Egypt. He declares himself ready to cooperate with British officials administering Egypt and
Sudan.
1900
Portugal
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
By this year Portugal has 8,345 km of telegraphic lines and 443 telegraphic stations. The telegraph is an
urban phenomenon hand in hand with city development. Due to the demand for telegraphic operators,
several schools were created. Submarine cables assured the telegraphic service between Portugal and
the United Kingdom, the United States of America, and Africa.
1900
Portugal
International Exhibitions
At the Paris “Exposition Universelle et Internationale”, the Portuguese pavilion is called “Portugal and
Portuguese Overseas Colonies”. Inside, on the ground floor, are two main exhibitions: one on the works
of João Vaz (1859–1931) painter of harbours and fishing scenes, the other on natural forest products
such as cork.
1900 - 1909
Italy
Migrations
Average annual Italian migration (temporary and permanent, to nearest 1,000): France 57,000; USA
233,000; Argentina 73,000; Brazil 30,000.
1900
Germany
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The establishment of the beneficence “Nobel Prize” by Alfred Nobel.
1900
Germany
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Planck’s Law, which describes electromagnetic radiation.
1900
Germany
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Ferdinand Graf von Zeppelin invents the zeppelin, a steerable airship.
1900
Turkey
International Exhibitions
As if to compensate for its absence from the Paris 1878 and 1889 exhibitions, the Ottoman government
spends a considerable sum on the pavilion for the Paris Internation Exhibition of 1900, designed by the
French architect Adrien-René Dubuisson.
1901
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Russian Steam Navigation and Trading Company begin commercial and passenger operations in the
Gulf.
1901
Italy
Fine And Applied Arts
Giuseppe Pellizza da Volpedo paints The Fourth Estate, showing workers on strike. The painting will
become an icon of the workers’ movement.
1901
Italy
Migrations
Comprehensive law on migration creates the Commissariato generale per l’emigrazione and introduces
other measures aimed at ensuring migrants’ welfare, such as medical inspections on boats.
1901 - 1910
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Giacomo Puccini consolidates his reputation. He develops a very personal language that is deeply rooted
in the Italian melodic tradition, despite his attention to international trends and his choice of exotic
subjects (Madama Butterfly, La fanciulla del West, Turandot).
1901 - 1914
Italy
Political Context
Almost uninterrupted rule by Giovanni Giolitti, who allows more freedom of action to trade unions,
introduces some social reforms and makes some openings for Socialists and Catholics.
1901
Italy
Travelling
Liguria (the region of Genoa) is the Italian region with the highest number of foreigners (12,000). It has
a mild climate that attracts foreigners escaping north Europe’s harsh climate for health reasons. All
through the 19th and early 20th centuries, many foreigners affected by tuberculosis and other illness
resided in Italy for extended periods.
1901 - 1903
Greece
Political Context
Under the leadership of King Constantine I and Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos, Greece defeats the
Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria during the Balkan Wars.
1901
Greece
Economy And Trade
The Greek Chamber of Commerce is founded in Alexandria, Egypt, with Emmanouil Benakis as its
president.
1901
United Kingdom
Travelling
Age 42, a young and energetic Viceroy of India, Lord Curzon, visits the Arab Gulf sheikhdoms to confirm
treaties of British protection of them, a policy that prevails until 1970.
1901
United Kingdom
Political Context
The British Viceroy, Lord Curzon, visits the sheikhdoms of the Gulf to confirm treaties of protection that
exclude other European powers. Iraq and Arabia fall under a British- Indian sphere of influence with the
Indian rupee as the principal currency. Curzon’s policy lasts until 1970.
1901
Austria
Cities And Urban Spaces
Otto Wagner designs and overseas construction of the Viennese metro, the Wiener Stadtbahn.
1901 - 1909
Saudi Arabia
Political Context
Under the Ottoman Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid, the Hijaz Railway is built, running from Istanbul to the Medina
(Madinah) province.
1901
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Fine And Applied Arts
One of the founders of Macedonian modern art, Lazar Lichenoski (d. 1964) is born in Galichnik. After
graduating from Belgrade Art School he attended prestigeous art schools in Paris. He is best known for
his landscapes, which reveal the harmonious beauty of nature through endless views from the peak of
Bistra Mountain. Lichenoski introduced expressionism in Macedonian art.
1901
Portugal
Cities And Urban Spaces
31 August: Inauguration of the first electric tram route in Lisbon, connecting Cais do Sodré to Ribamar
(Algés). The more efficient electric tramway, with tracks, overhead power lines and the construction of
Santos Central Power Station, replaces the popular “Americanos” horse-drawn trams of Lisbon.
1901
Portugal
Fine And Applied Arts
The Sociedade Promotora de Belas Artes (1861) and the Grémio Artístico (1890) created by the Grupo do
Leão (1880) merge into the National Society of Fine Arts (SNBA) headed by Malhoa Columbano and
António Ramalho. In Porto, the Centro Artístico Portuense (CAP) (founded in 1870) did not survive the
death of the painter Silva Porto in 1903.
1901
Portugal
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Posthumous publication of the Livro de Cesário Verde, a compilation of the poetry of Cesário Verde
(1855–86) by his friend, Silva Pinto, author of the Preface. An original poet who described a world
previously unknown to poetry, Cesário Verde completely modernised the traditional style of the
Portuguese lyricism.
1901
Turkey
Cities And Urban Spaces
Izmir Clock Tower is built to commemorate the 25th anniversary of Abdülhamid II’s accession to the
throne. It is designed by Levantine French architect Raymond Charles Père.
1902
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Economy And Trade
The Qawasim and other sheikhs of the Arab littoral agree by Treaty to prohibit the import of arms into
their territories.
1902
Italy
International Exhibitions
First International Exhibition of Modern Decorative Arts in Turin, featuring the best production of
architecture, furniture and applied arts.
1902 - 1903
Italy
Rediscovering The Past
The Italian state buys the 15th-century building of Villa Borghese in Rome and the park around it,
including the astounding collection of paintings and sculptures that the villa housed. The villa will be
transformed into the Borghese Gallery and Museum.
1902 - 1909
Italy
Rediscovering The Past
First Italian national laws on the protection of cultural heritage. The new laws establish the principle of
inalienability of national heritage and create a state administration (with national and local branches)
dedicated to caring for cultural heritage.
1902
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
Legislation passed prohibiting children under the age of 12 from working, women from working in mines
and under-age women from working at night. First provisions for maternity leave (four weeks after
delivery).
1902 - 1920
Saudi Arabia
Political Context
In 1902, age 19, King ‘Abd al-‘Aziz ibn ‘Abd al-Rahman, along with a small army, returns to Riyad to
reclaim his family legacy. Managing to take Riyad, ‘Abd al-Rahman then begins to unify modern Saudi
Arabia.
1902
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Birth of writer Stale Popov in Melnca, Mariovo Region. He began writing early immortalising tales from
Macedonian folk tradition about Itar Pejo (Smart Pejo). He achieved eminence after publication of his first
novel Patchwork Life. His talent lay in introducing themes from social life. His other well-known novels
are Kalesh Angja and Tole Pasha.
1902
Portugal
Cities And Urban Spaces
Opening of Santa Justa Lift, an iconic example of iron architecture. Planned since 1874, it was designed
to bridge the 25 metre gap in height between Ouro and Carmo streets, thus making pedestrian traffic
between Lisbon’s hills easier. The inauguration of the gangway by King Carlos I is held on 10 July.
1902
Portugal
Travelling
Inauguration of the Escola de Medicina Tropical de Lisboa (Lisbon Academy of Tropical Medicine),
founded like its European counterparts to provide specialised training, spread knowledge and undertake
field research. One of its main subjects was sleeping sickness for whose treatment the Academy
undertook five field missions (1904–11) to São Tomé and Mozambique.
1902
Lebanon
Rediscovering The Past
Opening of the Archaeological Museum of the American University of Beirut. It is the third oldest museum
in the Mashriq, after those in Cairo and Istanbul.
1902
Turkey
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Nazım Hikmet Ran, famous Turkish poet, playwright and novelist, is born.
1903
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Political Context
British Viceroy and Governor-General of India, Lord Curzon, visits the Trucial sheikhs at Sharjah to
reaffirm Britain’s commitment to “guardianship and protection” and the British Government’s position as
“your overlords and protectors”. Curzon asserts that continued British control of India depends on
maintaining British supremacy in the Gulf.
1903
Austria
Fine And Applied Arts
The Wiener Werkstätte, an association of designers such as Joseph Hofmann and Koloman Moser is
founded, covering all aspects of design from fashion to furniture.
1903
Serbia
Political Context
A military coup brings about restitution of the Karađorđević Dynasty.
1903
Egypt
Cities And Urban Spaces
The House of Arab Antiquities opens on 28 December 1903, located on Bab al-Khalq Square which is
famous for its Islamic infrastructure: the mosques of Ahmad ibn Tulun and Muhammad ‘Ali, and the
Citadel of Saladin. The Museum is only the second concrete-iron building to be constructed after the
Egyptian Museum.
1903
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Fine And Applied Arts
A founder of contemporary Macedonian art, Nikola Martinoski is born in Krushevo (d. 1973). He learned
painting in the Skopje workshop of the icon painter Dimitar Andonov, and in Bucharest and Paris. His
distinctive expressionist style depicts social themes and portraits, influenced by Macedonian frescos and
the modern Parisian school. His outstanding work is the painting "Mother and Child".
1903
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Migrations
The Slav-Macedonian Scientific Literary Society, also known as the St Petersburg Colony, is established.
It plays an important role in the national awakening of Macedonians and raising the issue of the
independence of Macedonia within the international community.
1903
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Migrations
Publication in Sofia of On Macedonian Matters by Krste Petkov Misirkov (1874–1926). This book was a
starting point in explaining factors about Macedonian people as a distinct nation and laid the foundations
of the Macedonian modern language and grammar.
1903
Germany
Rediscovering The Past
A large part of the richly ornamented south facade of Qasr al-Mushatta – one of the most important
works of early Islamic architecture – was presented as a gift from the Ottoman Sultan ‘Abd al-Hamid II
to Emperor Wilhelm II and transported from Jordan to Berlin via rail and sea.
1903
Austria
Political Context
The young King Alexander of Serbia is brutally murdered in an officers’ conspiracy in June. The
replacement of the pro-Austrian Obrenović Dynasty by the pro-Russian House of Karađorđević under
Peter I, changes the balance of power in the Balkans.
1904
Austria
Reforms And Social Changes
Theodor Herzl, founder of the Zionist movement, dies.
1904
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Luigi Pirandello (1867–1936), Italian dramatist, novelist, poet and short story writer, publishes the novel
Il fu Mattia Pascal. In 1934, he will be awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.
1904
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
Law on free distribution of quinine to peasants and workers in malaria-infested areas.
1904
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
First general strike at a national level held as a protest at police violence against workers (in repeated
instances, the police had opened fire against workers on strike, killing several of them).
1904
Austria
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
First performance of Leoš Janáček’s (1854–1928) opera Janufa.
1904
Egypt
Cities And Urban Spaces
The Egyptian Geological Museum (EGM) is established and opened to the public as part of the Egyptian
Geological Survey (EGS), founded earlier in 1896. The Museum supports the theses that Egyptians are
pioneers in extraction and utilization of metals and stones, the essential basics of civilization, and that
they were the first to discover gold and copper and mine them from the Eastern Desert and Sinai.
1904 - 1912
Spain
Political Context
After the loss of its last colonies, Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippines, Spain focuses on North Africa in
the framework of the colonial interests of other European powers such as France, the UK and Germany.
After different international talks and agreements – Spanish–French Agreement (1904), Algeciras
Conference (1906), Cartagena Declarations (1907) – Spain and France sign in November 1912 the Treaty
establishing the French and Spanish Protectorates in Morocco.
1904
Portugal
Cities And Urban Spaces
Avenida Ressano Garcia, a main residential area and development axis opens in the north of Lisbon as
part of the “Avenidas Novas” plan. Part of a later phase of the Lisbon Improvements Plan, led by
Frederico Ressano Garcia, it also included sanitation improvement. Today the street is known as Avenida
da República.
Around 1914 - 1918
Germany
Economy And Trade
In 1914 Germany becomes the biggest industrial nation within Europe as a result of munitions production
before and during World War I.
1904
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
Publication of Max Weber’s The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Weber is known as the
originator of social science.
1905 - 1907
Romania
Travelling
The construction of the seaside resort Mamaia, on the shore of the Black Sea, which became and remains
one of the most popular Romanian resorts.
1905
France
Reforms And Social Changes
On 29 June, the working day for minors is reduced to eight hours.
1905
Italy
Economy And Trade
Nationalisation of the railways.
1905
Italy
Travelling
The Automobile Club d’Italia is founded.
1905
Morocco
Political Context
Emperor Wilhelm II visits Tangiers on 3 March 1905, keen to prevent diplomatic isolation of his country
and to safeguard Germany’s economic interests.
1905
Egypt
Reforms And Social Changes
The Egyptian Olympic Athletes Club is built in Alexandria.
1905
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The first film in the Balkans is shot by the Manaki brothers. Pioneers of Macedonian film, Janaki (1878–
1945) and Milton (1880–1964) shot their first film only 10 years after the Lumiere Brothers. It shows
their grandmother Despina spinning wool. Their first film of ethnographic value was shot soon after. It
documents celebration of the feast of Sts Cyril and Methodius in front of the church devoted to these
saints in Bitola.
1905
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Migrations
Publication of the journal Autonomous Macedonia begins in Belgrade. This attempt to propagate the idea
of an independent state initiated by Grigorie Tashkovic ends after only a few issues.
1905 - 1916
Germany
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Physician Albert Einstein formulates his Theory and publishes Relativity: The Special and General Theory.
1905
Germany
Migrations
Foundation of the German field-workers central office (Deutsche Feldarbeiter Zentralstelle; later
Deutsche Arbeitszentrale), initiated by the Prussian Ministry of Agriculture, in order to control work-based
migration to Germany.
1906
Tunisia
Rediscovering The Past
The Archaeological Museum of Sfax is established in one of the city’s hotels.
1906
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The German Hamburg–America Line offers a steamer service between Europe and the Gulf.
1906
Romania
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
18 March: Romanian pilot and inventor Traian Vuia tests in France (near Paris) his heavier-than-air, fully
self-propelled, fixed-wing aircraft. The plane leaves the ground and flies at a height of 1 m for a distance
of about 12 m, but the engine cuts out and it comes down.
1906
France
Reforms And Social Changes
Introduction of a compulsory weekly rest period of 24 hours (voted on 3 July).
1906
Italy
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Simplon Tunnel between Domodossola (Italy) and Brig (Switzerland) inaugurated. The construction
works had started in 1898. At the time, it was the longest tunnel in the world (19.7 km).
1906
Italy
International Exhibitions
International Exhibition in Milan to celebrate the opening of the Simplon Tunnel. The main focus is on
transport. There are 35,000 exhibitors, coming from dozens of different countries, and more than 5
million visitors.
1906
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Italian poet Giosuè Carducci (1835–1907) is awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.
1906
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Sibilla Aleramo (pseudonym of Rina Faccio, 1876–1960) publishes Una donna (A woman), a fictionalised
memoir that describes a woman’s desperate struggle to assert her individuality in a male-dominated
society. The book is considered a feminist manifesto.
1906
Italy
Rediscovering The Past
Ethnographer Lamberto Loria (1855–1913) creates an Ethnography Museum in Florence.
1906
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
The Confederazione Generale del Lavoro (CGL – national confederation of trade unions) is founded.
Argentina Altobelli becomes Secretary General of the Farm Workers Union (the first woman to become
national union leader).
1906
Greece
Travelling
The Intercalated or Olympic Games are held in Athens. An international multi-sport event, many people
consider them to be the Olympic Games. The International Olympic Committee refers to them as the
“Second International Olympic Games in Athens”.
1906
Morocco
Political Context
The Algeciras Conference of 1906 endorses the intervention of Western powers in Morocco, granting
special rights to both Spain and France.
1906
Portugal
Reforms And Social Changes
Opening of the Lyceu Maria Pia, Lisbon, the first secondary school for girls. Though planned since 1887,
female access to secondary level education faced lengthy resistance from Parliament. In 1888 the
government was authorised to set up girls’ secondary schools run by district, municipal and charitable
entities in Lisbon, Porto and Coimbra.
1906
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
Alois Alzheimer describes a type of dementia, Alzheimer’s, for the first time.
1906
Lebanon
Cities And Urban Spaces
In celebration of the 30th year of ‘Abd al-Hamid II as sultan of the Ottoman Empire, the Tell Clock Tower
is erected in Tripoli as a gift to the city. It is similar to the Jaffa Clock Tower and many others throughout
the Empire.
1906
Lebanon
Cities And Urban Spaces
Hotel Kadri is built in Zahlé. In 1914 it is taken over by the Turkish army and used as a military
headquarters.
1906
Lebanon
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The Ottoman government decides to build the Electric Tramway Station in Beirut. The electric tramway
passes through Beirut on seven tram lines built in 1891 heading to the coast and linking Beirut and
Mameltein.
1906
Lebanon
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The second railway in Lebanon is opened connecting with the first line at Riyaq and running to Aleppo,
connecting it with Beirut.
1907 - 1912
Tunisia
Political Context
The Young Tunisians found the first French-language newspaper Le Tunisien. Echoes of their militant
action are seen in the riots of Djellaz on 11 November 2011 and the tramway accident on 8 February
1912.
1907
Lebanon
Travelling
Khalil Pasha (1864–1923), commander of the Turkish Sixth Army during World War I orders the creation
of the Hamidi Public Garden, which later becomes the Sanayeh Garden. It is one of the oldest public
open-air spaces in the capital.
1907
Austria
Reforms And Social Changes
Introduction of the general equal franchise means that all Austrian male citizens have the right to vote
for members of the parliament; prior to 1907 only males paying a minimum amount of tax were allowed
a vote.
1907
Morocco
Political Context
Colonial rivalries: the Moroccan crisis brings about a new raft of trade agreements between the English
and the French, with the participation of the Spanish, sharing out Morocco and Egypt, which is greeted
with dismay by Moroccans.
1907 - 1912
Morocco
Political Context
A series of incidents provoke the intervention of the French army when in August 1907 the French land in
Casablanca and occupy Oujda, Casablanca and Fez, despite opposition from Germany.
1907
Spain
International Exhibitions
Colonial Exhibition in Paris. After the success of the first international exhibition known as the Great
Exhibition in London in 1851, international exhibitions become more specialised as colonial exhibitions
from 1866. These exhibitions, held in European cities until 1948, depict life in the colonial territories.
1907
Spain
Reforms And Social Changes
Creation of the Junta para Ampliación de Estudios e Investigaciones Científicas (JAE) (Board for
Advanced Studies and Research), a public institution founded to provide scholarships for Spanish
university students to attend European universities. Intended to promote contact with European culture
and science, this public programme created a basis for reforms needed in education, culture and science.
The JAE, ideologically related to the Institución Libre de Enseñanza (Free Institution for Education), was
abolished by Franco’s government in 1938 and replaced by the Consejo Superior de Investigaciones
Científicas (CSIC – Higher Council for Scientific Research) in 1939.
1907
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Fine And Applied Arts
Gjorgji Zografski paints what is considered to be the earliest depiction of an actual historic event. It
shows the plundering raid on the village of Papradishte near Veles that occurred in 1884.
1907 - 1920
Portugal
Cities And Urban Spaces
In Aveiro, art nouveau buildings are associated with a local middle class looking for cultural and social
status. Some are “brasileiros”, coming back from Brazil to their homeland, and investors in trade and
industrial businesses, thus contributing to local economic development. The art nouveau of Aveiro is
inspired by French patterns.
1908
Tunisia
Reforms And Social Changes
The School of Pasha Street, the first school for Muslim girls, opens in Tunis.
1908
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Cities And Urban Spaces
The population of Sharjah has reached around 19,000 inhabitants. The suq boasts some 200 shops, with
a multicultural mix of local and resident merchants, pearl traders, and trade-related professionals
originating from as far away as India and East Africa. The Emirate of Sharjah as a whole is estimated as
having around 45,500 inhabitants at this time.
1908
France
Reforms And Social Changes
Manifestation of French suffragettes for women’s right to vote.
1908
Greece
Fine And Applied Arts
An exhibition by members of the Omada Technis (Art Group), which includes Nikolaos Lytras,
Konstantinos Parthenis, Konstantinos Malea and others, reacts to the conservative academicism of the
Munich school.
1908
Portugal
Political Context
1 February: The assassination of King Carlos I and his heir-apparent Prince Royal Luis Filipe in Terreiro
do Paço in central Lisbon, fomented by, among other things, the King’s appointment of João Franco as
head of government in 1906; with the King’s consent he set up a dictatorship one year later. Queen
Amelia and Prince Manuel escape and the prince is enthroned as King Manuel II.
1908
Germany
Political Context
Austria-Hungary annexes the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Following international
protests, Germany shows solidarity with Austria.
Since 1908
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
Women are admitted to study at German universities.
1908
Turkey
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Turkey
Political Context
Hijaz Railway is opened.
1908
4 July: Young Turk Revolution.
1908
Turkey
Political Context
23 July: The Constitution of 1876 is restored and the Committee of the Union and Congress (CUP) takes
control over the administration.
1908
Austria
Political Context
The Austrian Government proclaims the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina and the evacuation of
Austrian troops from the Sanjak on 6 October. The Austrian annexation then escalates into a major
international crisis, which sees Serbia’s future hope to establish a Yugoslav empire shattered.
1909
France
Reforms And Social Changes
On 7 December the law is passed guaranteeing the payment of wages at regular intervals (every 15 days
for workers, every month for employees).
1909
Italy
Fine And Applied Arts
Filippo Marinetti publishes the Futurist Manifesto in Le Figaro.
1909
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Filippo Tommaso Marinetti (b. Alexandria, Egypt, 1876, d. Bellagio, Italy, 1944) publishes the Futurist
Manifesto. The Futurist artistic movement emphasised speed, energy, vitality, and the power of machine
and technology. Marinetti also glorified violence and war, which he considered “the world’s only hygiene”.
1909
United Kingdom
International Exhibitions
Heliopolis, Egypt, in this year, sees one of the first aviation exhibitions with an “Aviation Week”. While,
initially, aviation was a sport, during World War I it became a weapon. It is only after the end of the war
that aviation starts to be used as a form of “mass” transport for the wealthy.
1909
Egypt
Economy And Trade
Trading had hardly started that day (30 April) at Shari‘ al-Borsa al-Jadida or New Bourse Street when it
was announced that Raphael Suares, the leading laissez-faire banker-industrialist in Egypt, had passed
away. The Bourse closed for the rest of the day. It was largely thanks to Saures’ efforts that Cairo had a
bourse in the first place. His unexpected and early death meant that Suares missed by only a few months
the imposition of the first ever bourse regulations.
1909 - 1926
Spain
Political Context
Military actions in northern Morocco to prevent attacks by local tribesmen around Melilla are very
unpopular in Spain because of forced levies. The levy decree of 1909 causes uprisings in Barcelona and
other Catalonian cities known as Semana Trágica/Setmana Tràgica (Tragic Week). Spain is ultimately
successful in the lengthy Rif War (1921–26) in preserving its rule over northern Morocco although in
1921 its army retreats with huge losses.
1909
Turkey
Fine And Applied Arts
A Turkish group of painters, Association of Ottoman Painters, is founded by students from the Fine Arts
Academy in İstanbul.
1909
Turkey
Political Context
The 31 March Incident (31 Mart Vakası/Olayı or Hadisesi) is a rebellion on 13 April (31 March in official
Rumi calendar) in Constantinople against restoration of the constitutional system. It is the culmination of
the Ottoman countercoup that attempted to end the Second Constitutional Era in the empire and the
newly established influence of the Committee of Union and Progress in order to reaffirm Abdülhamid II as
absolute monarch.
1909
Turkey
Political Context
27 April: Unseating of Sultan Abdülhamid II and accession of Sultan Mehmed V.
1910
Romania
Rediscovering The Past
27 April: the establishment of the Historical Commission of Romania, which is intended to publish critical
editions of the Romanian medieval chronicles.
1910 - 1920
France
Migrations
The Spanish community is France’s most important.
1910
France
Reforms And Social Changes
On 28 December, the Act establishing the Labour Code is passed.
1910 - 1912
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
Maternity fund for female workers established. Voluntary pension fund established.
1910
Austria
Cities And Urban Spaces
When Adolf Loos designs the Michaelaplatz in Vienna for the textile company Goldman & Salatsch,
unusually, there is no ornamentation around the windows.
1910
Spain
International Exhibitions
“Meisterwerke muhammedanischer Kunst” (Masterpieces of Islamic Art) exhibition in Munich displaying
more than 3,600 artefacts. The exhibition gives Islamic art and archaeology a new push in the academic
world and is considered a turning point in the orientalist view of and romantic passion for Islamic art and
culture.
1910
Portugal
Political Context
The Republic is proclaimed in Lisbon on 5 October. King Manuel II is forced to exile in England together
with his mother Queen Amelia who ends up in her homeland France. A Provisional Government is set up,
headed by Teófilo Braga, a well-known respected jurist and writer. The new cabinet ruled until the first
republican Constitution was enacted.
1910 - 1919
Italy
Migrations
Average annual Italian migration (temporary and permanent, to nearest 1,000): France 44,000; USA
157,000; Argentina 32,000; Brazil 13,000.
1910 - 1930
Germany
Fine And Applied Arts
Foundation of the Pergamon Museum (including the Museum of Islamic Art), conceptualised by Wilhelm
von Bode, and built by Alfred Messel and Ludwig Hoffmann.
1910
Germany
International Exhibitions
A groundbreaking exhibition on Islamic art opens in Munich, “Ausstellung von Meisterwerken
Muhammedanischer Kunst”.
1910 - 1925
Germany
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The era of Expressionism in literature (i.e. the works of Benn, Kafka, Lasker-Schüler, Mann and Döblin) is
influenced by the human experience of World War I and other influences such as Darwinism, Friedrich
Nietzsche’s “despair of civilisation” and Freud’s Psychoanalytic theory.
1911
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Economy And Trade
The Qawasim and other sheikhs of the Arab littoral sign a Treaty with the British that enjoins them to
request permission from the British Resident in the Arabian Gulf prior to responding to foreign requests
for pearling or sponge-fishing rights along the Trucial Coast.
1911
Lebanon
Travelling
A private residence in Beirut’s Zokak el-Blat quarter is turned into the Robert Muawad private museum,
presenting precious collection of fine arts and antique pieces.
1911
Italy
Cities And Urban Spaces
In Rome, inauguration of the neoclassical monument to King Victor Emanuel II (built after clearing the
Capitol Hill area of medieval buildings) and of the new building for the National Gallery of Modern Art,
built for the Fine Arts International Exhibitions, combining elements of different styles (neoclassical, neoRenaissance, Liberty).
1911
Italy
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Italy is the first country to use a plane in war (the Italo-Turkish war, for the conquest of Libya). Planes
cannot carry heavy weights, so the pilot carries in his pocket 1 kg bombs that he drops manually.
1911
Italy
International Exhibitions
To celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of Italian unification, international exhibitions are organized in Rome,
Florence and Turin.
1911 - 1912
Italy
Political Context
Italo-Turkish war: Italy gains possession of Libya and the Dodecanese Islands.
1911
Greece
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Alexandrian poet Constantine P. Cavafy publishes his poem Ithaca.
1911 - 1930
Spain
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Mariano Fortuny y Madrazo designs dresses, cloaks and tunics influenced by Arab and North African
garments such as the abas or the bournous. He is best known for his dresses inspired by the garments of
Antiquity such as his Delphos dresses, or in the orientalist style.
1911
Portugal
Political Context
April: First Republican Constitution enacted. Manuel de Arriaga is elected as the first President. It is
believed that the Republic will address the economic crisis and promote progress. Though bringing
together political forces, the regime is too vague to achieve the necessary economic and social reforms
and soon ends up in political fragmentation and infighting.
1911
Portugal
Fine And Applied Arts
The painters Dórdio Gomes (1890–1976) and Guilherme de Santa Rita (1889–1918) introduce
modernism in Portugal. Largely unaccepted by the critics, as was happening in other European countries,
the main focus of the modernists was to fight against the conservatism of techniques and themes still
cherished by Portuguese art consumers.
1911
Portugal
Reforms And Social Changes
28 May: Carolina Beatriz Angelo (1878–1911), a gynaecologist, succeeds in voting in the 1911 elections.
Challenged at the poll because she is a woman and therefore ineligible to vote, she insists, replying that
she is “a doctor, over 21 and head of a family” and therefore she fulfils all the conditions required to
vote. The electoral law is revised soon after this event.
1911
Portugal
Travelling
12–20 May: The 4th International Congress of Tourism is held in Lisbon organised in collaboration with
the Sociedade de Propaganda (founded 1906). Before the end of the meeting (18 May), the provisional
government of the newly proclaimed Portuguese Republic (5 October 1910) creates a Bureau of Tourism
at the Ministério do Fomento (Ministry of Development).
1911 - 1913
Germany
Rediscovering The Past
The international reputations of the Orientalist, archaeologist and investigator of inscriptions Ernst
Herzfeld and art historian Friedrich Sarre were assured when they found 8,000-year old (6th-century)
painted pottery known as Samarra-Ware. Some of these finds from Samarra are in the Museum of
Islamic Art, Berlin.
1911
Germany
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Foundation of the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft (later Max-Planck-Gesellschaft).
1911
Lebanon
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
In the reign of Yusuf Pasha, the train station in Beirut begins operating and is connected to the Syrian
city of Homs with a single track. From the 1920s to the 1940s It formed the terminus of the Orient
Express line.
1912 - 1929
Austria
Rediscovering The Past
The Austrian archaeologist Hermann Junker organises an excavation to Giza in Egypt.
1912 - 1920
Italy
Fine And Applied Arts
Giorgio de Chirico’s first metaphysical paintings (L’enigma dell’ora, 1912; Le muse inquietanti, 1916;
Ettore e Andromaca, 1917; Il Grande Metafisico, 1917).
1912
Italy
Economy And Trade
Law establishes state monopoly of life insurance and creates the Istituto nazionale delle assicurazioni
(INA).
1912
Italy
Political Context
The right to vote is extended to all men above the age of 30 (or aged 21 if they completed primary
school). The Pope allows Catholics to vote.
1912 - 1913
Greece
Political Context
The Treaty of Sèvres is ratified after the victory of the Balkan Wars and the end of World War I.
Consequently, Greece gains administration of the area of Smyrna.
1912
Austria
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Italian writer Scipio Slataper publishes his autobiography in which he describes the multinational
character of the Littoral (the countryside around his home in Trieste).
1912
Austria
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Jaroslav Hašek (1883–1923) publishes his parody on the Austrian army, The Good Soldier Švejk.
1912
Morocco
Political Context
Mulay ‘Abd al ‘Aziz is deposed and replaced by his brother Mulay ‘Abd al-Hafiz (1908–12), who is
proclaimed ruler in Marrakesh on 6 August 1907. He was then obliged to sign the treaty establishing the
protectorate in Fez on 20 March 1912.
1912
Morocco
Political Context
In November 1912 the Madrid Convention makes northern Morocco a Spanish protectorate.
1912 - 1913
Serbia
Political Context
The First Balkan War begins in October 1912 between Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and the
Ottoman Empire; Montenegro is accused of igniting it by attacking Skadar. At the request of Turkey, an
armistice is concluded in December 1912. Negotiations in London fail and the war continues into 1913. A
Peace Treaty is signed in London in May 1913. Turkey surrenders all territories west of the Enos-Midija.
The Serbian Navy withdraws from the sea; in November 1912, Albania is formed due to Austrian
pressure.
1912
Egypt
Cities And Urban Spaces
Bulaq Abu-l-‘Ala Bridge is inaugurated during the reign of Khedive ‘Abbas Hilmi II. It is seen as an
architectural marvel that will link Cairo with Zamalek Island.
1912
Egypt
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Muhammad Husayn Haykal publishes the first volume of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. He intended the book
to create a cultural intermarriage between the East and West and hoped it would lead to a new
intellectual revolution by providing an example to the West.
1912
Spain
Fine And Applied Arts
Foundation of the Museo Nacional de Artes Decorativas, an important step in the progress of applied arts
and design, especially because its main objective is the education of workers, students and the public in
the styles, decoration and other aspects of the applied arts.
1912
Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
Migrations
First publication of the Macedonian and Russian language journal Makedonski Golos (Macedonian Voice).
Krste Petkov Misirkov and Dimitrija Chupovski, central figures of the Slav-Macedonian Scientific Literary
Society, were largely responsible for its publishing.
1912
Portugal
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The first Portuguese experimental psychology laboratory is created in the new Faculty of Humanities of
the University of Coimbra by Professor Joaquim Augusto Alves dos Santos (1866–1924). The laboratory
enabled the development of research on knowledge and memory and had a major impact on pedagogy
and republican didactics.
1912
Portugal
Fine And Applied Arts
A reaction to academic teaching of the National Society of Fine Arts (SNBA) emerges in 1911 with the
first free exhibition of young modernist painters. This is highlighted in the first Exhibition of the
Humoristas of 1912, which includes painters Cristiano Cruz, Almada Negreiros, Eduardo Viana, Stuart de
Carvalhais, José Pacheko and Emmerico Nunes and sculptor Diogo de Macedo.
1912
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Paul Claudel's de L'Annonce faite à Marie opens at the Théâtre de l'Œuvre, a Symbolist theatre set up as
a reaction to André Antoine’s “Naturalist” Théâtre Libre.
1912 - 1913
Turkey
Migrations
Balkan Wars. Large wave of Muslims and Jews flee the Balkans for Ottoman lands to the south. This
involuntary migration is estimated to involve 64,000 persons.
1913
Romania
Political Context
In 1913 Romania participates in the Second Balkan War and under the Treaty of Bucharest receives the
south of Dobruja from Bulgaria.
1913
Italy
Fine And Applied Arts
Umberto Boccioni made the sculpture Unique Forms of Continuity in Space, considered a masterpiece of
Italian Futurism.
1913
Italy
Migrations
Italian migration reaches its peak: 870,000 Italians migrate abroad.
1913
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Grazia Deledda (1871–1936) publishes the novel Canne al vento. Thirteen years later, she will be
awarded the Nobel Prize (the second woman to be Nobel laureate in literature).
1913
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
Average life expectancy, which in 1861 was 30 years, is now 47 years.
1913
Austria
Fine And Applied Arts
Egon Schiele (1890–1918) becomes a member of the Bund Österreichischer Künstler (Society of Austrian
Artists).
1913
Serbia
Political Context
The Second Balkan War begins due to a quarrel between Serbia and Bulgaria over the division of joint
conquests. Bulgaria attacks Serbia and Greece in 1923; the Bulgarians are defeated on both fronts.
Subsequently, Turkey and Romania declare war on Bulgaria and the Bulgarians soon request an
armistice. The war ends with a Peace Treaty signed in Bucharest in August 1913. During the Balkan
Wars, Serbia expands its territory by 39,500 square kilometres.
1913 - 1914
Portugal
Political Context
Afonso Costa is appointed Prime Minister. Republican achievements fall short of people’s expectations,
fuelling the resistance of monarchists, capitalists and landlords. Inflation, public debt, trade deficit,
strikes, the rise of anarcho-syndicalism, middle-class disillusion, and fear of communism will invite the
establishment of the 1915 military dictatorship.
1913
Portugal
Fine And Applied Arts
February–March: Amadeo Sousa Cardoso, at the invitation of Walter Pach (1883–1958), exhibits eight
works at the Armory Show (1st Show of European Art, USA) in New York, Chicago and Boston. The
Chicago art collector Arthur J. Eddy acquires three paintings by Cardoso and promotes his work in his
book Cubists and Post-Impressionism book, emphasising his colour techniques.
1913
France
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of Marcel Proust’s Du côté de chez Swann.
1913 - 1917
Germany
Cities And Urban Spaces
The last palace (Cicilienhof) of the House of Hohenzollern (a dynasty of former princes, electors, kings
and emperors) was built under Wilhelm II. The palace hosted the Conference of Potsdam in 1945.
1913
Turkey
Political Context
23 July: Edirne retaken by the Ottoman Army under the command of Enver Paşa.
1913
Turkey
Political Context
23 January: Bab-ı Ali coup d'état in the empire (Turkish: Bâb-ı Âlî Baskını) results in Grand Vizier Kamil
Paşa being driven from power and replacement of Minister of War Nazım Paşa by İsmail Enver. Effectively
ending the London Peace Conference, it marks a significant point in the Ottoman government's progress
towards centralisation, giving de facto power to the triumvirate known as the Three Pashas.
1914
Qatar
Economy And Trade
Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim regulates the activity of pearling. He issued and publishes the first written
document on pearling activities identifying the start and the end dates of the season and the dividend
rates of workers in pearling dhows.
1914s
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Economy And Trade
Around 1914, 80 per cent of the Trucial Coast’s labour force is involved in the wider pearling sector,
including 950 major pearl merchants, 1,300 pearling ship-owners and some 21,000 general employees.
The remainder are employed in agriculture, fisheries and other forms of commerce. Gulf pearling exports
amount to 2 million pounds sterling.
1914
Romania
Political Context
Death of King Carol I. As he only had one daughter, who died at the age of three, Ferdinand, his fraternal
nephew, had been designated heir to the Romanian throne in 1880.
1914
Romania
Rediscovering The Past
Vasile Pârvan initiates archaeological digs at Histria (Dobruja), the earliest documented city in the
territory of Romania, and in 1915 discovers the ruins of the ancient Greek city Istros.
1914
France
Reforms And Social Changes
The first French Doctorate in literature, Docteur en lettres, is received by a woman.
1914 - 1918
France
Political Context
The First World War, which left millions dead in France, leaves a lasting impact on society.
1914
United Kingdom
Political Context
War catches the people by surprise: British troops are fighting the Ottomans on three fronts. They are
repelled at Gallipoli, pushed back in Southern Arabia, and British forces are captured in Iraq. By the end
of the war these setbacks are reversed and Britain and her allies occupy Constantinople, Egypt, Iraq and
the Levant.
1914
Austria
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Austrian expressionist writer Georg Trakl commits suicide following his experiences in battle during
World War I.
1914 - 1918
Serbia
Political Context
Egypt
Reforms And Social Changes
The duration of World War I.
1914
Laying of the Foundation Stone of the University of Fuad I.
1914
Egypt
Political Context
On 25 July, at the onset of World War I, ‘Abbas Hilmi II is in Constantinople where he suffers wounds to
his hands and cheeks during a failed assassination attempt. On 5 November of that same year, when
Britain declares war on Turkey, ‘Abbas is accused of deserting his country because he did not return
home forthwith. In addition, because the British believe that he has been plotting against their rule,
when the Ottoman Empire joins the central powers in the war, Britain declares Egypt an independent
Sultanate under British Protectorate on 18 December, and ‘Abbas is deposed.
1914 - 1920
Spain
Economy And Trade
Due to Spain's neutrality in World War I, the economy witnesses increased production and industrial
growth. The end of the war produces the beginning of a crisis that causes the end of the monarchy in
1931.
1914
Lebanon
Political Context
The privileged position enjoyed by Lebanon is ended by the Ottomans in World War I: Lebanon’s semiautomous status is abolished and Mount Lebanon, an important territory at the international level, is put
under martial law by the Ottomans. The Turkish commander Jamal Pasha occupies Lebanon militarily.
1914
United Kingdom
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The Welsh poet and writer Dylan Marlais Thomas is born in Swansea on 27 October 1914. His best known
works include the poem “Do not go gentle into that good night” (1951) and the play for voices Under Milk
Wood (written 1951, first broadcast 1954). In later life, Thomas encouraged his reputation as a
“roistering, drunken and doomed poet”; dying prematurely in New York in 1953.
1914
Portugal
Fine And Applied Arts
With the outbreak of World War I, the modernist movement thrives in Portugal with the return from
France of a group of avant-garde artists including the painters Manuel Bentes (1885–1961), Eduardo
Viana (1881–1967), José Pacheko (1885–1934) and Amadeo de Souza Cardoso, and the sculptors Diogo
de Macedo (1889–1959), and Francisco Franco (1885–1955).
1914 - 1926
Portugal
Economy And Trade
Crisis of the First Republic (1914–26). Lack of political stability due to the absence of parliamentary
majorities able to undertake much-needed reforms, together with the political consequences of Portugal’s
participation in World War I from 1916, contributes to the deterioration of the economic situation,
hastening the fall of the Republican regime.
1914
Germany
Political Context
The heir apparent of Austria, Franz Ferdinand, is murdered in Sarajevo by a member of the Serbian
intelligence service known as the “Black Hand”. As a consequence, the Austrian government issues an
ultimatum to Serbia; Germany declares war on the Russian Empire and on France; and Great Britain
declares war on the German Empire.
1914 - 1918
Germany
Political Context
World War I is declared and fought.
1914 - 1918
Germany
Migrations
One in every ten members of the workforce in the German Empire is foreign (many of them prisoners of
war).
1914
Turkey
Reforms And Social Changes
The School of Fine Arts for female students (İnâs Sanâyi-i Nefise Mektebi) is opened.
1914
Turkey
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
A school for theatre (Dârülbedayi) is founded.
1914
Austria
Political Context
On 28 June the heir-apparent Archduke Francis Ferdinand is shot in Sarajevo by a Bosnian youth of Serb
origin.
1914
Austria
Political Context
Austria declares war on Serbia in July: she is supported by Russia, France and Britain. Turkey and
Bulgaria enter the war on the side of the German–Austrian Alliance.
1914
Turkey
Political Context
29 October: German warships, officially designated as Ottoman vessels, shell Russian Black Sea ports, an
action that leads the Ottoman Empire to enter World War I.
1915
Qatar
Political Context
The Ottomans suddenly abandon Doha, leaving behind guns, shells and ammunition.
1915 - 1918
Italy
Economy And Trade
When the war breaks out, the state takes a leading role in organising industrial production. Dramatic
growth of steel, mechanic, chemical and textile productions. Workers in industries of strategic value are
submitted to military discipline.
1915 - 1918
Italy
Political Context
Italy participates in World War I on the side of the UK, France and Russia, despite widespread opposition
to entering the war. On the Austrian front, Italy suffers a crushing defeat at Caporetto in 1917, but wins
in 1918. In Libya, Arab revolt: Italy keeps control only of coastal towns. Casualties are 650,000 military
deaths, 950,000 wounded, 600,000 prisoners of war or missing.
1915
Lebanon
Political Context
Turkish commander Jamal Pasha initiates a blockade of the entire eastern Mediterranean coast. Lebanon
witnesses thousands of deaths from widespread famine and plague.
1915
Portugal
Fine And Applied Arts
In the 1910s several modernist painters such as Eduardo Viana rejected the current teaching of academic
naturalism, still deeply rooted in the national taste. Their focus was the cubism, futurism and Dada
movements in Paris, but also the Orphism of French painters Sonia and Robert Delaunay, living in
Portugal in 1915–16.
1915
Portugal
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Publication of the only two issues of Orpheu magazine, thanks to the contribution of the most gifted
figures of the modernist group. Without anything specifically programmatic, the magazine shows an
iconoclastic irreverence, seeking notoriety by scandalising those holding traditional attitudes and
customs.
1915
Germany
Migrations
Introduction of the Legitimationszwang in Prussia allows police to tag foreign workers and their German
employers.
1915
Turkey
Political Context
Allied forces occupy İstanbul (16 March); Greece occupies İzmir (15 May).
1916
Qatar
Political Context
Treaty with the UK. This recognises Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim as the ruler of Qatar, and places the
sheikhdom under British maritime protection.
1916 - 1918
Romania
Political Context
After two years of neutrality, Romania fights in the World War I on the side of the Triple Entente. At the
end of the war, following the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy and of the Russian Empire,
the national gatherings of Bessarabia, Transylvania, Banat and Bukovina vote for their union with the
Romanian kingdom. Greater Romania is thus created.
1916
France
Migrations
First Chinese immigration wave to France: 35,000 Chinese workers are recruited to France during World
War I.
1916
Jordan
Political Context
Sykes–Picot Agreement signed by the British, French and Russian governments on 16 May 1916
concerning the division of Ottoman lands in Greater Syria between the two colonial powers, the UK and
France. According to this secret treaty southern Syria (Palestine and Jordan) and Iraq are to fall under
British mandate and Syria and Lebanon under the French.
1916 - 1920
Jordan
Political Context
Supported by the UK, on 10 June 1916 Husayn ibn ‘Ali, the Sharif of Mecca, declares the Great Arab
Revolt against the Turks with the aim of establishing an independent Arab state under his leadership in
Bilad al-Sham (Greater Syria). Aqaba in Jordan is captured in 1917, becoming the headquarters of the
northern army headed by Husayn’s son Prince Faysal, who becomes King of Syria in 1920. British
promises to Sharif Husayn have contradicted other secret agreements of the UK with its allies, e.g.
Sykes–Picot. These mandates put an end to the Arab Kingdom of Syria under King Faysal on 24 July
1920.
1916
United Kingdom
Political Context
British interests in the Middle East are driven partly by the British Indian administration and partly by the
strategic alliance with France. Mark Sykes for Britain and George Picot for France come to a diplomatic
agreement to divide the Ottoman Levantine possessions for their respective countries. This conflicts with
an earlier British promise of independence.
1916 - 1917
Saudi Arabia
Political Context
The Arab Revolt begins on 10 June 1916 led by the Governor of Mecca (Makkah), Sharif Husayn ibn ‘Ali,
and his sons, the amirs ‘Ali and Faisal. His forces seize the city of Riyad and force the small Ottoman
garrison to seek refuge in the local fortress. Another of Husayn’s sons, Amir Abdallah, manages to
surround and then take the town of Ta’if.
1916 - 1917
Saudi Arabia
Political Context
Rebel clans allied to Sharif Husayn attack Jeddah (Jidda) and other seaports along the Arabian coast of
the Red Sea.
1916
Saudi Arabia
Political Context
By the end of July 1916, the seaports of Jeddah, Yanbu and Rabigh are in Arab hands. This allows the
British to increase their supply of arms and equipment to the Arab forces fighting in the Hijaz.
1916 - 1917
Egypt
Economy And Trade
More paper currency enters circulation: the 25 piaster together with the five and 10 piaster.
1916
Lebanon
Political Context
Turkish authorities publicly execute 21 Syrians and Lebanese in Damascus and Beirut, respectively, for
alleged anti-Turkish activities; the place of execution in each city will be renamed Martyrs' Square.
1916
Austria
Political Context
Death of Emperor Francis Joseph and accession of Emperor Charles I to the Austro-Hungarian throne.
1916
Austria
Political Context
Romania declares war on the Central Powers: Germany, Austria and Bulgaria.
1916
Portugal
Political Context
Germany declares war on Portugal. Portugal enters World War I, complying with international
commitments in Europe and defending the Portuguese strategic possessions in Africa, mainly Angola and
Mozambique. The Portuguese army fought on the western European Front and in the south of Angola
(border with Namibia) and the north of Mozambique (Nevala).
1917 - 1920
France
Cities And Urban Spaces
The planning and development of several cities in Morocco (Casablanca, Fez, Marrakech, Meknes and
Rabat) are carried out by French architects.
1917 - 1918
Saudi Arabia
Political Context
In June 1917 the coastal city of Aqaba in Jordan becomes the new base for Faisal’s army, renamed the
“Arab Northern Army”. Attacks on the Hijaz Railway continue, extending now as far north as southern
Jordan. T. E. Lawrence, “Lawrence of Arabia” himself led reconnaissance parties into Syria and made
contact with Arab nationalists in Damascus. The spectacular victory of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force
(EEF) at the Third Battle of Gaza (Beersheba) in October 1917, and the subsequent British advance into
the Jordan Valley, gave renewed impetus to Faisal’s “railway war” further east. Meanwhile, Amir Faisal,
with Lawrence as his adviser, had captured the seaport of Wejh (al-Wagh) on the Red Sea, 150 km north
of Yanbu. From there, Faisal’s men spent most of 1917 attacking the Hijaz Railway. Small raiding parties
blew up sections of track, destroyed bridges, water towers and even some weakly defended railway
stations. The British, planning to invade Palestine, were keen for the Arab rebels to keep the 12,000
Ottoman troops tied down in Medina (Madinah).
1917
Egypt
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Strong cultural pressure at this time puts constraints on female performers. When the singer Munira alMahdiyya begins her career, she is the first female Muslim performer to appear onstage.
1917
Germany
Political Context
The United States declares war on the German Empire.
1917
Turkey
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
The conservatoire (Dârülelhân) is founded.
1918
Lebanon
Migrations
The Lebanese buy homes from the Italians and Jews, who are moving away. They learn about clothes,
home improvements, insurance and credit. Businesses are branching out, with dry goods and notions
business replaced by grocery stores, butcher shops, coffee houses and sales of farm produce from
vehicles.
1918 - 1919
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
600,000 die in the Spanish influenza pandemic.
1918
Greece
Reforms And Social Changes
The General Confederation of Greek Workers (GSEE) is founded.
1918 - 1920
Saudi Arabia
Political Context
Squabbling among the allies (those that had betrayed the Arab Revolution) delays the signing of the
Peace Treaty with the Ottomans, which is being negotiated at Sèvres in France up until 10 August 1920.
The Treaty confirmed French and British possession of Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan and Iraq in the
guise of League of Nations mandates. Sharif Husayn ibn ‘Ali is rewarded for his leadership of the Arab
Revolt with international recognition of the Hijaz as an independent kingdom.
1918
Egypt
Migrations
George Park begins building work on Alexandria Opera House, known also as Sayyid Darwish Theatre,
which opens in 1921.
1918
Egypt
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Najib al-Rihani introduces a new type of theatre known as Musical Theatre or Operette. Cooperating with
the famous Egyptian singer and composer Sayyid Darwish and the actor and writer Badi‘ Khayri,
together, they produce several successful Operettes.
1918
Spain
Political Context
Spain's neutrality in World War I brings important economic upturn.
1918
Lebanon
Political Context
British General Edmund Allenby and Faysal I, son of Sharif Husayn of Mecca, move into Palestine with
British and Arab forces, thus opening the way for the occupation of Lebanon.
1918
Austria
Political Context
The Peace (or Treaty) of Bucharest between Romania and Austria.
1918
Austria
Political Context
Armistice between Austro-Hungary and the Entente Powers (France, Russia and the United Kingdom).
1918
Austria
Political Context
Emperor Charles I renounces his participation to the government of Germany-Austria (Deutsch
Österreich). The Austrian republic is founded in Vienna.
1918
Germany
Political Context
Woodrow Wilson declares his “14 points” program in front of Congress.
1918
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
The so-called November Revolution results in the withdrawal of Emperor Wilhelm II; the Council of
People’s Deputies (SPD and USPD members) take over government.
1919
United Kingdom
Rediscovering The Past
At the Paris Peace conference held after the end of the World War I, the Ottoman provinces of Basra,
Baghdad and Mosul are unified into Iraq, governed by Britain, under a League of Nations mandate.
Gertrude Bell helps found the Iraq Museum (1926) and draft antiquities laws.
1919
France
Reforms And Social Changes
The official working day is recognised as eight hours; the official working week is set at 48 hours.
1919 - 1920
Lebanon
Economy And Trade
New currency is adopted when the Lebanese Bank is linked to the Syrian Bank.
1919
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
Law 1176/1919 abolishes “marital authorisation” and allows women to practise most professions and to
take up public employment. But some limitations on women working persist: they are still not allowed to
become magistrates, diplomats and police officers or reach the highest grades in the civil service.
1919 - 1920
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
The “Two Red Years”: 2 million unemployed. Introduction of compulsory old-age, unemployment and
disability insurances. High inflation and decrease of salaries. Intense workers’ mobilisation: strikes and
occupations of land, factories and shipyards. Trade unions achieve minimum wage, 8-hour working day
and recognition of factory commissions.
1919
Italy
Political Context
Introduction of universal male suffrage and of an electoral system of proportional representation. The
Popular Party (antecedent to the Christian Democrats) is founded. Mussolini creates the first Fascio di
combattimento (embryo of the Fascist Party).
1919
Italy
Travelling
The Ente nazionale per le industrie turistiche (ENIT – a state-funded body aimed at promoting tourism in
Italy) is founded. In the last decades of the 19th century, local associations and bodies aimed at
promoting tourism started to be created, under public or private initiative.
1919
Egypt
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Taha Husayn is appointed Professor of History at Fuad I University, where, through his own will and
craving for knowledge, he becomes the leader of the Arab cultural renaissance.
1919
Egypt
Reforms And Social Changes
The 1919 Egyptian Revolution is a milestone, not only in terms of the nationalist struggle, but also in the
history of popular revolutions in general. Its overall influence, extending well beyond the politics and
political parties of Egypt, exceeds the impact of the earlier ’Urabi Revolution.
1919
Spain
Cities And Urban Spaces
The beginning of the Madrid subway system, the first in Spain, heralding a major advance in public
transport in cities.
1919
Austria
Political Context
Austria signs the Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye with the Entente Powers.
1919
Germany
Political Context
On signature of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany must face up to its responsibility to make reparation
payments, abandon territory and let go of its colonies. The League of Nations is founded.
1919
Germany
Reforms And Social Changes
Rudolf Steiner, originator of the Waldorfpädagogik, opens the first Steiner School in Stuttgart (the basis
of which is human anthropology).
1920
Tunisia
Political Context
The first Tunisian political party is established as the Constitutional Liberal Party of Tunisia: “Le destour’’.
In a pamphlet published anonymously in Paris, one of its founders, Abdelaziz al-Thalibi, specified the
party’s demands.
1920 - 1921
Jordan
Political Context
The people of Transjordan, encouraged by the UK, establish local governments in Ajlun, Balqa and Karak.
British advisers are assigned to help these governments.
1920
Italy
International Exhibitions
First Milan Fair of industrial products: 1,233 exhibitors (including 224 foreigners) and 360,000 visitors.
1920 - 1922
Italy
Rediscovering The Past
Philosopher, senator and minister of education (1920–21) Benedetto Croce promotes the approval of the
first law on safeguarding the natural landscape.
1920 - 1922
Greece
Political Context
Following the “Asia Minor catastrophe”, almost 1.5 million Greek nationals arrive as refugees at Greece’s
coastal regions, for example at Pontus, having been uprooted from their homes in Asia Minor (Anatolia).
1920
United Kingdom
Political Context
The letter from the British Foreign Secretary, Arthur Balfour, to Lord Rothschild in November 1917 offers
British support to Zionist aspirations for Palestine to be a national home for Jews. This is internationally
confirmed by the League of Nations handing over Palestine to Britain as a Mandate.
1920
Egypt
Cities And Urban Spaces
Tal‘at Harb Pasha founds Banque Misr.
1920
Lebanon
Political Context
France takes control over Lebanese territory after the San Remo Conference.
1920
Austria
Political Context
The population of Carinthia in southernmost Austria votes in favour of remaining within Austria.
1920
Portugal
Fine And Applied Arts
Although it reproduces a traditional technique, the use of azulejo (ceramic tilework) meets the need for
modernisation of shops and public buildings in main cities throughout Portugal at the beginning of the
20th century.
1920s - 1930s
Germany
Rediscovering The Past
The Museum of Islamic Art, the German Oriental Society and the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York,
undertake two excavations during which several iwans and stucco ornaments, as well as numerous other
finds from houses, in layers of occupation from the late Sasanian period through to the early Islamic
periods, are found. The stucco finds form the foundations for later stylistic developments in Samarra.
Many of the stuccos are now found at the Museum of Islamic Art, Berlin, and the Metropolitan Museum of
Art.
1920
Germany
Political Context
Foundation of the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP); the party’s first selection for the
German Reichstag is on 6 July.
1920
Germany
Political Context
The Conference of San Remo was an international meeting convened to decide which parts of its
territories the Ottoman Empire would lose, to become the mandated territory under the League of
Nations. For example, France received mandated territory for Syria and Lebanon (and King Faysal of Iraq
goes into exile after losing Greater Syria to the French).
1920
Turkey
Political Context
23 April: Formation of Turkish National Assembly in Ankara.
1920
Turkey
Political Context
10 August: Treaty of Sévres, which divides Anatolia between the Allies, Greeks, Armenians and Kurds.
1921
Jordan
Political Context
By August 1921 this British policy has been changed and it is decided to establish the Emirate of
Transjordan under the leadership of Husayn ibn ’Ali’s son, Prince ‘Abdallah, who will become King of
Jordan in 1946.
1921
Italy
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
The number of motorvehicles grows rapidly; by 1921 there are 30,000 motorcyles, 34,000 cars, 1,000
buses and 22000 trucks circulating in Italy.
1921
Italy
Economy And Trade
Electricity production is 4,450 million kWh.
1921
Italy
Rediscovering The Past
Inauguration of the National Museum of Palazzo Venezia, in the 15th-century palace that used to house
the Embassy of the Republic of Venice in Rome. The museum progressively focuses on applied arts:
ceramics, furniture, silverware, jewellery, arms and armours, carpets and a variety of other items dating
from the Middle Ages to modern times.
1921
Italy
Reforms And Social Changes
Some 12 per cent of men and 20 per cent of women are unable to sign their marriage certificate because
they cannot write, a considerable improvement in literacy rates since 1867.
1922
Greece
Migrations
Many thousands of refugees arrive from Asia Minor.
1922
Egypt
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Mrs Dawlat Abyad writes a play to address the various problems experienced by Egyptian women in the
early 20th century.
1922
Egypt
Political Context
Britain declares Egyptian independence, but retains control of Egyptian foreign policy and the basic
administration of the country. On 15 March of this year, Fuad I issues a decree changing his title from
Sultan of Egypt to King of Egypt.
1922
United Kingdom
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Irish writer and poet James Augustine Aloysius Joyce’s (1822–1941) best-known work Ulysses is
published in this year.
1922
United Kingdom
Political Context
Of the 32 counties of Ireland, twenty-six southern counties vote to secede from the United Kingdom to
become the Irish Free State.
1922
United Kingdom
Political Context
Following Ireland’s decision to secede from the United Kingdom, Northern Ireland immediately exercises
its right to opt out of the new dominion and remain one of the four countries of the United Kingdom.
1922
Turkey
Migrations
Exchange of population between Greece and Turkey.
c. 1923
Greece
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Building of the Arzan-Amatovo Dam in Kilkis.
1923
Egypt
Reforms And Social Changes
Huda Sha‘rawi becomes the first president of the Egyptian Feminist Union having returned from the
International Woman Suffrage Alliance Congress in Rome.
1923
Turkey
Political Context
24 July: Treaty of Lausanne, which officially dissolves the Ottoman Empire.
1923
Turkey
Political Context
30 August: Final battle in western Anatolia results in the collapse of the Greek army.
1923
Turkey
Political Context
29 October: Proclamation of the Republic of Turkey. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk becomes the first president
of Turkey.
1924
Austria
Economy And Trade
The counterstamp of Austrian Maria Theresia Thaler (“MTT”) is seen on silver bullion coins from the
Arabian mint in Najd.
1925
Qatar
Economy And Trade
Sanat al-Tabaa: the year in which a relentless storm hits Qatar and the Gulf region, destroying many of
the pearling and fishing fleets and killing more that 8,000 people.
1925
France
Fine And Applied Arts
Promotion of Art Deco at the International Exhibition of Modern Industrial and Decorative Arts, Paris.
1925
Germany
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
Oskar Barnack invents the compact camera.
1926
Italy
Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion
Puccini’s last opera Turandot, which he left unfinished, is performed at La Scala in Milan under the
direction of Arturo Toscanini.
1926
Egypt
Great Inventions Of The 19th Century
On 4 December, in the city of Luxor, the Minister of Transportation, Muhammad Mahmud along with a
group of Ministers inaugurates the Luxor–Aswan Railway. The railway is considered one of Mahmud
Pasha’s greatest accomplishments as Minister of Transportation.
1927
United Arab Emirates (Sharjah)
Political Context
The British dismiss a former teacher of al-Taimiyyah School and a Qadi in Sharjah for sympathising
publicly with the Tawhidi (Wahhabi) movement in Najd.
1927
Egypt
Travelling
King Fuad I of Egypt’s visit to Italy.
1927
United Kingdom
Political Context
The Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act renames parliament to reflect the change following secession of
Southern Ireland. The state is now known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
1927
Germany
Travelling
The first stage of the racing circuit Nürburgring is constructed comprising the old “North loop” built
around the village of Nürburg in the Eifel mountains.