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INFLUENCE OF GENDER AND LOCALITY
ON THE ATTITUDE OF ADOLESCENTS
TOWARDS AIDS
BY
IKE CHUKWUEBUKA ANTHONY
PSY/2006/022
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
CARITAS UNIVERSITY, AMORJI NIKE
EMENE, ENUGU
AUGUST 2010
1
INFLUENCE OF GENDER & LOCALITY ON THE
ATTITUDE OF ADOLESCENTS TOWARDS AIDS
BY
IKE CHUKWUEBUKA ANTHONY
PSY/2006/022
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
CARITAS UNIVERSITY AMORJI – NIKE, EMENE
ENUGU
SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF
SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY (B.SC)
AUGUST 2010
2
CERTIFICATION
I certify that this work carried out by IKE CHUKWUEBUKA
ANTHONY in the department of psychology, faculty of social
sciences
…………………………….
Uncle Uche Aboh
Supervisor
…………….…………
Date
……………………………
Mr. Nwankwo Barnabas
H.O.D
…………………….…
Date
…………………………….
External Examiner
……………………….
Date
3
DEDICATION
Dedicated to Almighty God in the Trinity of the father and of
the son and the Holy Spirit.
4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My gratitude goes to God Almighty for his marvelous
work throughout my studies. Greatly wish to thank my
parents Mrs. Rosemary Ike, Ogochukwu Orisakwe and my
beloved brother Obiora Ike (peacemaker) and my sisters may
God bless you all for your financial support and advise.
Special thanks to my project supervisor Mr. Uncle Uche
Aboh whose contribution helped to sharpen the outlook of this
project.
I also give salute to the scholars that impacted the
knowledge. Prof Eya, Dr. Mrs. Omeje, Mr. Ejike Okonkwo, Mr.
Nwankwo Barnabas (H.O.D) and Mr. Aboh may their source of
knowledge give them god life and blessings finally to my
friends, Lawrence, Uche, Vivian, Nancy, Nnenna, Chisom,
Amaka, Waziri and Ogochukwu and all psychology students in
the department may God bless and see you all through Amen.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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Title Page
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i
Certification
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Dedication
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Acknowledgment
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Table of Contents
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List of Table
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Abstract
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
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Purpose of Study
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Statement of the Problem
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Operational Definition of Terms
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Theories of Attitude Formation
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Cognitive Theories of Attitude
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Definition of Attitude
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Empirical Review
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Summary of the Literature
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Hypotheses
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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
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Participants
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Instruments
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Interpretation -
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Procedure
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Summary of the Findings
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Implications of the Study
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Summary of the Study -
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Conclusion
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Design and Statistics
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
Results
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CHAPTER FIVE
Discussion
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Limitation of the Study -
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References
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Appendices
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Recommendation
LIST OF TABLES
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Table I:
Summary table of mean on attitude of adolescents
towards AIDS.
Table II: Summary table of two way ANOVA on attitude of
adolescents towards AIDS.
ABSTRACT
8
This study investigated Influence of Gender and Locality on
the Attitude of Adolescent Towards ADIS. 100 were Adolescent
randomly selected from urban and rural area for the study.
The age range was between 15-19 years with a mean age of
17years. Attitude towards AIDS scale Comoluabi 1995 was
used for data collection. 22 factorial design was used and a
two way ANOVA was also adopted as a statistical test, findings
showed no significant gender difference. Male and female
share similar attitude towards AIDS. There was a significant
localfect. Those who live in the urban area were found to have
more posture attitude than those who live in rural area. There
was significant interaction effect, findings were discussed in
relation to literature review and recommendation were also
made.
9
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
The ravages of the AIDS epidemic have made this disease
the highest priority of our health system. In the absence of a
cure, or more effective prevention or treatment, it was
projected in 1993 (Chesney, 1993) that the world could expect
30 to 40 million new cases by 2000 (Mann, 1991). These
projections are on tract or are proving to be underestimated
particularly in developing nations.
In 2000, the total number of people living with HIV was
estimated at 34.3 million, in the hardest hit regions in
Southern Africa, between 15% and 30% of the adults
population are believed to be HIV positive. Furthermore, the
United Nations estimated that at least 2 of every 5 girls and
boys, who are 15 years old today, in the countries in Southern
Africa, will die of AIDS (Schwartlanders, Garnelt, walkers, and
Anderson, 2000).
10
AIDS/HIV is a disease which affects human immune
system. AIDS has become the world’s fourth leading cause of
death and number one killer in Africa, where in 1998 it took
1.83 million lives (balter, 1999). AIDS as it name tells us, is an
immune disorder an acquired immune deficiency syndrome
(AIDS) caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV),
which is spread by exchange of bodily fluids, primarily semen
and blood. AIDS/HIV kills slowly; it ironically can be lethal to
more people. When the HIV infections becomes manifest as
AIDS, some years after the initial infection, the person has
difficulty fighting off other diseases, such as pneumolystis,
pneumonia, cancer, dementia, or a wasting syndrome in
which the body literally
withers away. Also after several
months to several years with no symptoms, patients may
develop minor health problems such as weight loss, fever, and
night sweats, symptoms that make up the condition known as
AIDS-Related-Complex (ARC).
11
On June 5, 1981, the centers for disease control reported
the first case of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).
In the decades that followed, AIDS grew from an unknown
disease into a devastating worldwide epidemic for which no
medical cure has been found. According to the world health
organization (2002), about 16,000 new infections occur each
day. Worldwide, 1 in every 100 adults between the ages of 15
and 49 are infected with the AIDS virus, and the disease has
so far claimed the lies of nearly 20 million people of the 3
million people who died from AIDS in 2001, 37 percent were
woman and 20 percent were children. In some countries of
Southern Africa, 25 to 40 percent of the population is infected,
including a third of all pregnant women. Globally, only 5 to 10
percent of the cases now occur in homosexual men (the
population typically identified with the Affliction), and women
now make up half of all HIV cases (United Nation, 2002). In
the early 2000’s, the rate of infection began to rise again
among homosexual men in North America, Europe and
12
Australia due to increases in risky sexual behaviour (CDC,
2003). The AIDS epidemic threatens to overwhelm the words
health care financing and delivery systems.
AIDS is caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus
(HIV), which cripples the immune system. The patient then
becomes vulnerable to invading viruses, bacteria, and tumors,
which are the actual killers. Because the AIDS virus evolves
rapidly, vaccines are at the present ineffective in preventing its
spread. Moreover, the incubation period between initial
infection and the appearance of the disease may be as long as
10 years, meaning that an infected needles in intravenous
drug use; and exposure to infected blood through transfusion
or in the womb.
In the absence of a vaccine or cure, the only existing
means of controlling the AIDS epidemic is by changing the
high-risk behaviours that transmits the virus. In this respect,
AIDS is as much as psychological problem as a medical one.
Prevention programs are typically designed to
13
1. Educate people concerning the risks that attend certain
behaviours, such as unprotected sex
2. Motivate people to change their behaviour to people living
with the virus
3. Provide
specific
guidelines
for
changing
the
risky
behaviours and teach the skills needed for changes and
4. Give support and encouragement or the desire changes
(O’Leary 2001).
Even when something as urgent as AIDS prevention is
involve the research has shown that the success of prevention
programs depends on the extent to which the individual social
system supports the desires changes (Herd & Linden Baum,
1992).
On promising approach to attitude change which was
inspired by Albert Banduras social cognitive theory. It involves
the use of modeling procedures to change attitude and
behaviour. In some of the poorest and most hopeless parts of
14
the word (Bandura, 2000). The strategy is to produce highly
engaging ‘entertainment-education” radio dramas to increase
awareness and counter-act false beliefs. In Tanzania, for
example, many people enoneously believe that AIDS is
transmitted by mosquitoes and that using a condom while
having
sex
could
actually
cause
the
disease.
Health
psychologists who focus on AIDS often design programs to
educate people about AIDS and to help prevent AIDS.
Attitudes are often unrelated to behaviour, that is, people
know that consequences of high risk behaviour can be deadly,
and they certainly have negative attitudes about acquiring
AIDS, but their behaviour may still be risky.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The aims of this study are as follows:
To determine whether gender will significantly influence
attitude of adolescents towards AIDS.
15
To examine whether locality will significantly determine attitude of
adolescents towards AIDS.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS
Not withstanding all the efforts by both government and nongovernmental organization against AIDS, the problem of the
pandemic is still at increase. As a psychologist, I became worried
on what could by the reason; on to this, thought that the major
reason for the continued spread of the virus maybe attributed to
the attitude of the public, especially adolescent towards this virus.
Adolescent were chosen as the target population because they are
not only the leader of tomorrow but thy engage more on illicit sex
than adult who are married. Therefore in looking at the problem of
attitude towards AIDS, the researcher decided to use gender and
locality as reference. Therefore following problems were addressed
in this study.
Will gender significantly determine attitude of adolescents towards
AIDS? Will locality significantly determine attitude of adolescents
towards AIDS?
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TEMS
Attitude
-
Predisposition of a behaviour
Adolescents
-Individuals between the ages of 12-20 years
Locality
-
Being urban or rural area
Gender
-
being male or female
AIDS
-
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
HIV
-
Human Immunodeficiency Virus.
PLWHA
-
people living with HIV/AIDS.
16
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
THEORIES OF ATTITUDE FORMATION
Some theories have been propounded and this is aimed
at helping us understand how attitudes are formed.
Thus, many theories have been postulated by numerous
scholars, but only a few will be presented in this discussion
for the purpose of convenience.
LEARNING THEORY: According to learning theorist,
attitudes are acquired inn the same way as other types of
behaviour (McGuire, 2005). They emphasize the importance of
factors in the formation of attitudes. The learning theories
believes more importantly that attitudes are acquired in the
same ways as facts, concepts, ideologies, habits, and ways of
thinking are acquired. We lean facts, we also lean emotions
that go with them. It is the pairing of facts with emotions that
result in the development of attitudes. This can be done
17
through classical conditioning, operant condition or modeling
(observational learning).
Emotional
response
can
be
elicited
be
numerous
environmental stimuli. A new stimulus is able to elicit the
same emotional responses as the old stimulus. If the new
stimulus becomes associated with the old one. Thus if an
individual experiences unpleasant feelings when he is exposed
simultaneously to a loud noise and electric shock, then, the
words that are repeatedly
will be associated with the noise
and the shock will also elicit an unpleased emotional
response. Stoats & Crawford (2002), for example, stated that
individuals who were subjected to loud noise or electric shock
every time they hear the word “large” developed a negative
attitude towards the word. Along the same line, Zanna, Kiester
& Pilkonis (2000) conducted another experiment using the
word “light” and “dark” and obtained similar results. Hence,
an
attitude
may
develop
indirectly
from
an
emotional
association with another attitude. Research indicated that
18
food
preferences
conditioning
are,
(Rozinard
infact,
&
influenced
Zellner,
2005).
by
In
classical
operant
conditioning, Insko (2005) showed that Hawaii undergraduate
University students who were reinforced developed wither
positive or negative attitude toward an attitude effect. Social
learning theories on the other hand has shown how observing
others particularly parents, peers and characters on television
can change our attitude (Bandura & Walters, 1985).
Linking the theory with attitude towards PLWHA, one
could say that negative attitude towards PLWHA could be
attributed to the fact that most people pair HIV with
promiscuity.
Though HIV can be contracted through other means such
as blood transfusion, mother to child, etc it is believed that
the
commonest
means
is
through
unprotected
sexual
intercourse with infected person. Borrowing leaf from this
theory, pairing of HIV with immoral act (promiscuous) breeds
negative attitude towards those infected with the virus. Also
19
because
of
this
issues
surrounding
the
virus
many
adolescents hold different attitudes towards the virus.
COGNITIVE THEORIES OF ATTITUDE
This theory believe that we form our attitude based on
internal thought and reasoning. According to Daryl Bens
(2002) self perception theory, people do not always know how
they think or feel about all issue. As a result they sometimes
infer attitudes from observing their own behaviour. The
cognitive consistency theory asserts that people have a strong
need to feel that their attitudes match and are in harmony
with one another.
In line with this statement, most people develop negative
attitude towards PLWHA because most people share the same
reasoning
and
perception
towards
people
living
with
HIV/AIDS. Heidler developed the balanced theory of attitude
formation while Feastinger (1957) developed the cognitive
dissonance theory which states that we feed tension whenever
20
one discovers that he/she has inconsistent thoughts or
cognition. The congruity theory is related to Heider’s balance
theory and it was postulated by Osgood & Tantenbaum
(1995). According to these investigators, the principle of
congruity governs all human thinking. This principle stated
tat changes in evaluation or attitude always occur in the
direction of increased congruity with the existing frame of
reference (Osgood & Tannebann, 1995). In other words our
attitudes
change
so
that
inconsistency
is
reduced
or
eliminated and is achieved.
Congruity theory is basically concerned with the ways an
individual evaluation of an object affects another persons
attitudes. For instance, different people in a society have
different attitude, towards certain kinds of behaviour such as
rape, armed robbery or murder and HIV/AIDS.
Finally, a summary of these theories reviewed above may
indicate that, learning theory holds that our attitudes are
shaped by conditioning. Cognitive approaches, such as
21
Heiders balance theory and congruity theory suggests that, we
seek overall cognitive system in which attitude is used to keep
behaviour and cognition in balance.
DEFINITONS OF ATTITUDE
How much we like or dislike something has much to do
with determining our behaviour toward that. We tend to
approach, seek out or be associated with things we like. We
also avoid, shun or reject things we do not like. Attitudes
therefore are simply expressions of how much we like or
dislike a thing(s) or project(s). They represent our evaluation
references toward a wide variety of attitudinal objects
(Morgan, King, Schillz & Wesz, 1985). According to Sdorow
(1995) attitudes are evaluations of ideas (such as insanity
defense,), events (such as surprise parties). Objects (such as
abstract art) or people (such as sorority members). Drever
(2008) define attitude as a more or less stable set or
disposition
of
opinion,
interest
22
or
purpose
involving
expectance of certain kind of experience and readiness with an
appropriate response.
It is sometimes used in wider sense but rather less
definitely as in aesthetic attitude in the sense of a tendency to
appreciate or produce artistic result or social attitude in the
sense of being sensitive to social relations, social duties or
social opinions. Other psychologists have also described
attitude to mean different thing. Among these scholars are
Kretch & Cruthfield (2002) who define attitude as an enduring
organization
of
motivational,
emotional,
perceptual
and
cognitive process with respect of individual’s world. Bartleet
(2002) has reduced the phenomena of perception, judgment,
memory, learning and thought largely to operations of
attitudes. This explanation tends to recognize that the way
one perceives, judges, learns is a function of ones attitude.
According to Green (1992) attitude as a concept does not refer
to any specific act or response but is an abstraction from a
large umber of related acts or response is sufficient to
23
determine an individual’s attitude rather it involves many
related responses o acts. All port (1973) while broadly
identifying attitude asserted that an altitude is a mental and
neutral state of readiness organized through experience
exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s
responses to all objects and situation with which it is related.
Thurstone (2000) defined attitude as the effect for and
against a psychological object implying that attitude can refer
to effective reaction of an object. Fishbein (2003) sees
attitudes as a persons evaluation of an act or behaviour
towards specific act and is proposed t be a function of acts
perceived consequences and their value to that person. The
underlining factor here is that attitude towards a particular
object or event is influenced by the personal experience of the
individual.
In summary, an attitude is a learned predisposition to
response consistently in a positive or negative way to some
person, object or situation (Petty, Ostrom & Brock, 2001).
24
Huffman, Vernory, Karen & Vernny (2001) asserted that an
attitude has three basic components. These are the cognitive
component which represents thoughts or beliefs. The affective
components which reflects feeling or emotional reaction and
the behavioural component which described tendencies or
predisposition toward certain actions based on a particular
attitude.
EMPIRICAL REVIEW ON ATTITUDE OF ADOLESCENTS
TOWARDS AIDS:
Various studies have been conducted in relation to
attitude towards HIV& AIDS and people living with HIV&AIDS.
According to Barunji, Kaluma, Burkilya & Kosajo (2002),
family members play an important role in providing care and
support to people living with HIV/AIDS. In this endeavor they
are faced with psychological problems and their attitude
toward the people living with HIV/AIDS fluctuates. This
increases stigma an lowers the quality of support the people
25
living with HIV/AIDS receive. In carrying this study, 40
“families’ 30 of which has people infected with HIV and 10 of
had patients with full blown AIDS, (five died dunning the
course of study) were studies or a period of 18 months. The
study was done by observation, questionnaires and interviews
which addressed factual issues about HIV/AIDS especially
transmission, care and support feelings towards patients,
their sexual partners and children, the role of the counselor in
providing psychological support. Issues on how the present
situation could be improved were also addressed. The
questionnaires and interviews were administrated to family
members, relatives ad any other can providers. Findings
revealed that most of the family members believed that AIDS
is still secret issue, a taboo family members should not
discuss openly. Their psychological reactions range from
blaming, bewilderment, anger, confusion and resentment
towards patients. This culminates into dissention self blame
among family members, stigmatization, poor understanding,
26
acceptance and support of the people living with HIV & AIDS.
The negative reaction increases as the disease advances. The
counselor’s supportive role is paramount but not adequate.
They highlighted the need for more care focused community
initiated interventions and intensive education programs to
supplement the counselors role in reducing psychosocial
problems and stigma (Barunji, Kaluma, Bunkwija & Kasoji
2002).
In a similar study, Niemice, Preeelawska & Chagan
(20060 gathered information about the attitude of polish
women
toward
HIV/AIDS
and
determine
if
there
was
relationship between social-demographic variables, altitudes
and opinions expressed. One thousand and three hundred
and eighty five woman in reproductive age (N = 1385; 15-49
YEARS)
from
three
different
religion
of
Poland
were
interviewed regarding their altitudes towards people living
with HIV & AIDS, perceived risk for HIV/AIDS prevention and
AIDS – related knowledge. The participants demonstrated a
27
hostile altitude towards HIV infected peoples, especially to
women, and low level of AIDS knowledge. However, there was
little evidence of avoidance of high-risk sexual behaviours.
Overall, polish women had reactively liberal views about
people with HIV although majority felt freedom. Finding
suggests that there is no close match between what is
epidemiologically
accepted as risk
behaviour and
what
respondents regarded as risk behaviour. Age, marital status,
educational status and locality appeared to be significant
determinant of altitudes towards people living with HIV/ AIDS,
while religion and income were not. In conclusion findings
indicate the need for a comprehensive AIDS education
programme to improve the knowledge and change the altitude
toward people living with HIV/ AIDS in Poland.
To show that HIV/AIDS – related stigma has persisted
world-wide for decades. Studies on the linkage between
stigmatizing attitudes towards people living with HIV / AIDS
(PLWHA) and misconceptions about HIV transmission routes
28
in the general population, especially among youth in china
was carried (zhang, li, mao, Stanton, zhao, wang & mahur,
2008). Cross sectional data from 1,839 students from 19
colleges were collected by trained interviewers using a
structural questionnaire in yiangusu province of china. The
study reveals that there is a high proportion of college
students having both stigmatizing altitude towards AIDS and
people living with HIV/ AIDS and misconceptions about HIV
transmission routes. Multiple regression analysis results show
that having stigmatizing altitudes towards AIDS and people
living with HIV / AIDS is positively associated with having
misconceptions about scores were more likely to posses
stigmatizing altitudes towards AIDS. The study recommend
that HIV / AIDS education should be strengthened among the
general
population
especially
among
youth
to
reduce
stigmatizing altitudes towards people living with HIV / AIDS
and AIDS virus (Zhang, et al, 2008).
29
In an intervention study on reducing discriminatory
altitudes towards AIDS and people living with HIV / AIDS
(PLWHA) in Hong Kong, Lau, Tsui & Chan (2005) presented a
paper on the development and evaluation of an intervention
programme aimed at reducing adolescents discriminatory
altitudes towards people living with HIV / AIDS ( PLWHA). The
intervention programme integrates components of virtual
interaction with PLWHA (watching a documentary). Knowledge
enhancement and a simple cognitive exercise. To evaluate its
effectiveness, the programme was implemented to about 600
from 3 – 4 (grade 9 – 10) students of three secondary schools
in Hong Kong. Using a structured questionnaire, the level of
discriminatory altitudes towards PLWHA, and knowledge
about HIV/AIDS was found after the implementation of the
programme. Negative perceptions about PLWHA also reduced
substantially for instance, before the programme, over-third
(35.7%) of all respondents believed that the majority of PLWHA
were promiscuous; the figure dropped to 15.8% after exposure
30
to the programme (adjusted odds ratio = 0.35, p < 0.001). with
an observation on gender difference. Female respondents
tended to have less discriminatory altitude towards PLWHA
and responded more favourable to the programme than their
male counterparts.
Anahita, Azadeh, Anihita, Parvin, & Zahra, (2004)
assessed the knowledge and altitude of high school students
regarding AIDS in Iran through a clustering, 4641 students
from high schools in Tehran were assessed by anymous
questionnaire in February 2002. Result of the study revealed
that the students identified television as their most important
source of information about AIDS. Only a few students
answered all the knowledge questions correctly, and there
were many misconceptions about the routes of transmission
were common, there was a substantial intolerant altitude
towards PLWHA.
In another study, in china, Lau & Tsui (2007) examined
discriminatory attitude towards people living with HIV/AIDS
31
and associated factors. The aim of the study was to examine
the level of discriminatory attitudes towards people living with
HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) and factors in association with such
attitudes. A population based sectional telephone survey was
conducted. A total of 800 Hong Chinese aged 18 – 50
randomly selected from the general population participated in
the study. Findings revealed that round respondents exhibited
discriminatory altitudes in a least five out of the 20 relevant
items. For instance, about 42% could avoid making physical
contact with PLWHA, believed that all infected medical staff
should be dismissed and about 47% would agree with
enacting a law to prohibit PLWHA from visiting Hong Kong. A
sizable proportion of the respondent also hold negative
perceptions about PLWHA (for example, 43.7% agreed that the
majority of PLWHA are promiscuous, 20.7% thought that
PLWHA are merely receiving the punishment they deserve, etc)
multiple regression analysis found that age, HIV related
knowledge, the above mentioned negative perception about
32
PLWHA, fear related to AIDS, and exposure to HIV related
information were independent predictors of discriminators
altitudes towards PLWHA. About 30% would give PLWHA the
lowest priority in resources allocation among five groups of
patients with chronic disease.
The study that the general publics in Hong Kong have
formed some negative perceptions of PLWHA. Discriminatory
altitudes towards PLWHA were common and cover different
aspects of heir life intervention programmes are warranted
and an integrated approach is requires.
Furthermore,
Lau
&
Tsui
(2006),
compared
the
magnitude of discriminatory attitudes stop toward people
living with HIV/AIDS and toward people with mental illness in
the Hong Kong general population. The study compared the
level of discriminatory altitudes towards people living with
human
immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) Acquired
Immune
Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) (PLWHA) and people with mental
illness (PMI) and investigated factors associated with the
33
absolute and relative levels of these discriminatory attitudes.
An anonymous cross-sectional telephone survey interviewed
604 Chinese adults aged 18-50 years from general Hong Kong
population. Discriminatory attitudes toward both groups are
prevalent, and with that towards PLWHA stronger than
towards PMW. Over half 158%) would rather make social
contact with PMI than with PLWHA. Among other factors,
respondents who perceived PLWHA to be promiscuity or
perceived PLWHA to cause apprehensiveness in others had a
higher likelihood of being more discriminatory toward PLWHA
than toward PMI. These respondents were also more willing to
make social contact with PMI than with PLWHA. Factors such
as those related to less sympathy or unfavorable perceptions
towards PLWHA were associated with discriminatory attitudes
towards both PLWHA and PMI. Discriminatory attitudes
towards the two groups were positively corrected with one
another (r = 0.58), p < 0.001). PLWHA face stronger
discriminatory attitudes than PMI. Value – laden judgment
34
and less subsequent opportunities for personal interaction
with
PLWHA
may
partially
explain
the
differences.
Discriminatory towards attitudes different social groups may
share similar underlying roots.
Lau, yang, xilin & Tsui (2000) also cooked at the
prevalence and factors associated with social avoidance of
recovered
Several
Acute
Respiratory
Syndrome
(SARS)
patients in the Hong Kong general population. The study
investigated the general populations perceived infertility of
asymptomatic
and
syndrome
(SARS)
avoidance
and
recovered
patient
severed
and
discriminatory
acute
factors
respiratory
associated
attitudes,
with
including
demographic background, SARS- related perception and
emotional response to the SARS epidemic. A population-based
survey was conducted in Hong Kong. 475 Hong Kong Chinese
adults participated in the survey perceptions of the infertility
and
health
conditions
of
recovered
SARS
patient
and
avoidance and discrimination towards men were measured. Of
35
the respondents, 75.7% and 16.2%, respectively, believed that
SARS could be transmitted via asymptomatic SARS patients
and those patients who have recovered from SARS for 18
months; 72. 7% of the respondents believed that the health of
SARS patients would severally and permanently be damage;
16.6% showed some tendency of avoiding recovered SARS
patients and 35.7% expressed some sort of job – related
discriminatory attitudes perceived infertility of asymptomatic
and recovered SARS were independently associated with
avoidance and discriminatory attitudes. The study opened
that misconceptions about the infectivity of asymptomatic and
recovered SARS patients were common recovered SARS
patients may also be facing avoidance and discrimination.
Showing the importance of study attitude of the public
towards PLWHA across the globe, Connors & Italy (2003)
carried a similar study in authorial. This study examined
attitudes towards people with HIV / AIDS within a sample of
20 young men and women. As predicted, multiple regression
36
analysis revealed that the fear of contracting HIV / AIDS
through casual contact was significant predictor of both men’s
and women’s unwillingness to interact with people living with
HIV / AIDS. Attitudes towards homosexuality were also a
significant predictor of attitudes towards people living with
HIV/AIDS among women who generally have a low risk of
contracting the disease in western societies. These results
indicate that attitudes towards people with a serious illness
may be strongly related to the perceived risk of contracting the
disease.
In Nigeria, Ogunjujugbe, Olugbemga & Obiyan (2007)
surveyed attitudes towards people living with HIV / AIDS:
implication for infection and spread of HIV / AIDS in Lagos
state. The paper addresses the issues pertaining to the
attitude of friends, relative and neighbours towards AIDS virus
and to people living with HIV/AIDS in Lagos state, Nigeria.
Data for the study were obtained from a survey conducted
between August and September, 2004 in Lagos state. The
37
study reveals that: (1) among people living with HIV / AIDS in
Lagos state 66 percent of female and 44 percent of male were
in age group 21-40 years; (ii) most of the people living with
HIV/AIDS got to know about their seropositive status at the
health facilities when they were sick and some when they had
tuberculosis, (iii) many of those infected and affected by
HIV/AIDS have been stigmatized and there is tendency for
them to hide their HIV/AIDS identity. The results therefore
highlighted the need for open education on stigma and
discriminatory regarding HIV/AIDS and people living with
HIV/AIDS. Apart from targeting people who are not infected
with the virus in order to prevent them from becoming
infected alone, people living with HIV/AIDS also need to be
exposed to information and education on how to access
medical services and drug provision and on how to find
appropriate emotional and practical support and help.
38
SUMMARY OF THE LITERATURE
From
the
literature
reviewed,
it
is
obvious
that
stigmatization against people living with HIV/AIDS is a global
problems. Several studies attributed this stigma to poor
knowledge about HIV/AIDS. This also make people to have
negative attitudes towards HIV/AIDS. Also studies have
revealed that adolescents in the societies have different
attitudes towards the AIDS virus, according to their knowledge
and information about the virus.
Studies from Africa, American, Europe, Asia revealed that
people living with HIV/AIDS suffer stigma from all factors
including members of their family, friends and society.
Literature
review
showed
that
governments
of
various
countries are yet to control stigma against people living with
HIV/AIDS. Above all, stigma and discriminatory altitude
towards PLWHA retards the war against the spread of the
virus.
39
HYPOTHESES
The following hypotheses were tested:
Gender will not significantly determine attitude of adolescents
towards AIDS.
Locality will not significantly determine attitude of adolescents
towards AIDS.
40
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
PARTICIPANTS
A total of 100 participants comprising 50 male and 50
female adolescents selected as sample for this study. 50 of the
participants were selected from SS I & SS II community
secondary school Amokwe in Udi L.G.A, while 50 were selected
from command secondary school Enugu both in Enugu state.
The participants were within the age range of 15 – 19
years with a mean age of 17 years and a standard deviation of
5 years. All the participants selected from the rural area were
indigenes of the town and live in it as well while those from
command secondary school live in Enugu metropolis.
INSTRUMENT
A10 item questionnaire with liker response formed design
to measure attitude towards AIDS was use The item of the
worded positively with strongly agree 5point, strongly disagree
41
1point.Hence a list possible score of 75 could be obtained by
any given respondent. Score between 46-75 indicate positive
attitude towards AIDS.
However, the items were validated on a facial base using three
lecturers selected from the department of psychology Caritas
University. The lecturers who severed as expert judges
validated the items on a facial base. In order words any item
accepted or rejected by the ⅔ majority of the lecturers is
accepted or rejected respectively. Hence, this brought the
initial 22 item to 15 items.
In addition to that pilot study was carried to ascertain
the rehability of the instrument. A total of 30 participants
from rehabilitant of Enugu South Local Government were
used. Data obtain yielded a split half rehability coefficient of
0.53 using person product correlation and a full scale
rehability of 0.73 using spearman bonbach alpha. The above
data were compared with r- critical value of 0.46 at p & 01
level of significance.
42
PROCEDURE
A total of one hundred and fifteen copies of the
questionnaire were randomly distributed within a period of
four week to select participants for this study secondary
school was used because it is were adolescents could be seen
easier. However, since the researcher wants to check locality
as a factor, adolescents were selected from one secondary
school in the rural area (Community Secondary School
Amokwe in Udi Local Government Area) and one in Urban
Area (Command Secondary School Enugu). The choice of
using command is because the researcher requires a mixed
school since the school from rural are mixed school.
However,
simple
random
sampling
technique
was
adopted making use of 10th case to select participants for the
study. This was done using the students register.
Finally, questionnaire was administered to the one
hundred and fifteen participants that were selected.
43
However, only one hundred copies hat were correctly
filled and returned were used for the study.
DESIGN / STATISTIC
A 2 x 2 factorial design was adopted based on two
independent variables, gender: (male/female) and locality
(rural/urban) as factors in relation to attitude towards AIDS
the dependent variable.
In addition, a 2 x 2 analysis of variable T – test was
applied to analyze the data using the method of unweighted
means for unequal sum numbers in order to test the
hypothesis.
44
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
Table I: Summary table of mean on attitude of adolescents
towards AIDS
LOCALITY
Urban
Rural
Male
Gender
Female
X.1 = 50.0
X11 = 54.6
X21 = 44.96
X12 = 54.56
X22 = 42.16
X 1. = 55
X.2 = 48
X1. = 44
Result shown in table one showed that urban participants has
a mean attitude of 55 while rural participants had a mean
attitude of 44 Also male participants had a higher mean of 50
compare with their female counterpart who had a mean
attitude of 48. Hence high mean indicate
45
Table II: summary table of 2 x 2 ANOVA using method of
unweighted mean on attitude of adolescents towards AIDS.
Source of
Sum of
variation
squares
Row Gender
50.41
Df
Mean
F
p
square
1
50.41
1.13
>.05
Column Locality 3036.01
1
3036.01
67.95
<.01
Interaction
- 1560.31
1
- 1560.31
-34.92
<.05
Within cells
4289.4
96
44.68
Total
5815.51
99
Locality and
Gender
Results as shown in table two revealed no statistically
significant
gender
difference on
altitude
of
adolescents
towards AIDS [f (1, 96) = 1.13, P>.05]. The first hypothesis
which stated that there will be no significant gender difference
on attitude of adolescents towards AIDS was accepted from
46
the table of mean, it was found that both male and female
adolescents share similar mean attitude towards AIDS.
Results also showed a statistical significant difference in
attitude towards AIDS between adolescents participants who
live in the rural areas and those who live in the urban area
[f(1,96) = 67.95, P<.01].
The second hypothesis which stated that adolescents
who live in the rural area and those who live in the urban area
will not differ on other attitude towards AIDS was rejected. It
was found that those who live in the urban area have high
positive attitude than those who live in the rural area.
There was also a significant interaction effect of gender
and locality on attitude towards AIDS among adolescents.
Ef(1,96) = - 0.3.92, p>.05.
47
SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS
Findings of this study can be summarized as follows:
i.
No significant gender difference was observed on
attitude of adolescents towards AIDS.
ii.
A significant difference was observed between
adolescents who live in the rural area and those
who live in the urban area on attitude towards
AIDS.
iii.
However, an interaction effect of gender and
locality was observed on attitude of adolescents
towards AIDS.
48
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION
The findings of this study revealed that only one of the
two hypothesis yielded a significant outcome. The first
hypothesis which stated that male and female adolescents will
not differ significantly on their attitude towards AIDS was
accepted. This shows that males and female adolescents share
similar attitude towards AIDS. From the calculations; it is
observed that both share negative attitude towards AIDS. This
is an indication that little or nothing have been done to
change the negative attitude of public particularly adolescents
towards AIDS. The findings of this hypothesis is an indication
that much is still needed to be done on the sensitization of the
public towards HIV/AIDS. Most adolescents still believe that
AIDS is rumor especially some that resides in the rural area.
Some of them about 30% do not know the meaning of HIV or
AIDS while other sees it as a curse. Majority of them vowed
not to have anything in common with any individual living
49
with the virus. This negative attitude promotes stigmatization
against people living with HIV / AIDS. While microscopic few
individual adolescents share positive attitude to AIDS and
those living with the virus, majority show discriminative
attitude towards it.
However, the issue of negative attitude towards AIDS and
PLWHA has become a global problem. In line with the outcome
of this study Niemiec, Preceawaska & Chagan (2006), reported
high negative of polish women towards HIV/ AIDS. Zhang, li,
Mao, stations, zhao, wang & Mahur (2008) also observed a
stigmatizing attitudes towards PLWHA especially among
youth, according to the study, the situation is worse that’s if
no urgent is done, it may result in another thing. In Hong
Kong, Lau, Tsui & Chan (2005) also reported high level of
discriminatory attitude towards HIV/AIDS and PLWHA among
adolescents.
Furthermore, the second hypothesis which stated that
urban and rural adolescents will not differ significantly on
50
their attitude towards HIV/AIDS was rejected. This indicates
that urban and rural adolescents differ significantly on their
attitude towards AIDS. In other words, adolescents who live in
the rural area do not share the same attitude with those who
live in the urban area toward AIDS.
The statistical mean indicates that adolescents who live
in the rural area show higher negative attitude towards AIDS
than those who live in the urban area. Though the normative
mean indicates that both urban and rural adolescents have
negative attitude towards AIDS, it went further to reveal that it
is very high among those who live in the rural area. The
reason for this may be attributed to various factors such as
illiteracy, lack of proper knowledge about HIV/AIDS, belief
system, cultural factors and so on. Most of the adolescents in
the rural areas were illiterates. Majority of them ended their
education at primary school while others were drop out from
secondary school. This affects their sense of reality and
51
general knowledge about AIDS. In addition most belief that
AIDS is a curse, others say that there is nothing like AIDS.
The outcome of this hypothesis is in consonance with the
findings of earlier researchers. Niemice (et al, 2006), observed
that locality is a determinant on attitude of the public towards
PLWHA. Lau & Tsui (2007) also reported discriminatory
attitude of Chinese towards AIDS and PLWHA from the two
hypothese will say that most of the adolescents have high
negative attitude towards AIDS and this is always extended to
people living with the virus.
IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY
This study has obvious implications. The study will serve
as an eye opener to a better understand of factors affecting
war against the spread of HIV/AIDS. It could be recalled that
not withstanding numerous efforts by government at all levels
and non-governmental organizations to ameliorate the spread
of HIV/AIDS, the pandemic is increasing. The outcome of this
52
study revealed that negative attitude to HIV/AIDS is a major
factor that affects war against the spread of the virus.
In addition to that, the present study has exposed to the
stakeholder in the fight against HIV/AIDS were they should
beam their search light with based on the fact that the
negative attitude is more among rural dweller. This indicates
that campaign should focus more in the rural areas than
urban areas. In doing so, local languages should be employed.
Finally, the study will be used as empirical work for
future researchers who will carry similar study.
53
CHAPTER SIX
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMEDATION
SUMMARY OF THE STUDY
Findings of this study can be summarized as follows:
There was no significant gender difference on the attitude of
adolescents
towards
AIDS.
In
addition,
a
significant
interaction effect of locality was observed on the attitude of
adolescents towards AIDS. Finally, no interaction effect of
gender and locality on the attitude of adolescents towards
AIDS.
CONCLUSION
Based on the findings of this study the researcher hereby
concludes that most of the adolescents show negative attitude
towards AIDS.
Gender difference was not observed while locality is a
determinant of adolescent’s attitude towards AIDS, within
54
rural participants showing higher negative attitude towards
AIDS.
Interaction effect was also found between female and
male adolescents towards AIDS.
SUGGESTION FOR FURTHER STUDY
Based on the findings of this study, the following
recommendations are here by made.
Future researchers should carry similar study in another
locality with different cultural background to determine the
cross-validity of this study across culture.
Future researchers should also look at the role of other
variable such as educational background, and so on in
determining attitude towards AIDS.
Furthermore, government at local level should pay
attention to the campaign against HIV/AIDS stigma. This is
very
important
because
they
55
are
the
closest
level
of
government to masses especially the rural dwellers. It is also
very important to be using local language the spread of
HIV/AIDS.
Finally, Non-governmental organization in collaboration
with school authorities, market authorities, organizations of
various should always organize seminars, conferences and
workshop on war against HIV/AIDS. Such activities should
center more on changing the negative attitude of the public
towards HIV/AIDS.
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The present study has obvious limitations first and
foremost; only 120 adolescents were used out of myriad of
adolescents in our society.
This was as a result of lack of money .The exercise would
have covered many hospital but researchers lack the to do so.
In addition, lack of adequate time could not allow the
56
researcher to carry the study on many hospitals. This is
because the study was conducted when
In addition, the attitude of participants towards the
completion of the questionnaire at initial stage was not
encouraging. Most of them were afraid thinking that the
information they will give, will be used against them by the
school authority. Though this was later overcome through
rapport and confidentiality.
57
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62
APPENDIX 1
Questionnaire on attitude towards AIDS
Department of Psychology
Caritas University
Enugu.
20th May, 2010
Dear Respondent.
The bearer is a final year student of the abovementioned
institution, currently caring out a research on attitude
towards AIDS. You are requested to say your opinion/attitude
towards the item below. There is no wrong or write Answer.
Thus it is for academic purpose; therefore your responses will
be treated with confidentiality.
Hence tick
SA for Strong Agree, A for Agree, U for
Undecided, D for Disagree and SD for
Strongly Disagree.
Age-----------------------------------------------------------------------Sex-----------------------------------------------------------------------Class of study----------------------------------------------------------Residential Address---------------------------------------------------Name of school----------------------------------------------------------
63
APPENDIX II
S/No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Items
I am not afraid of AIDS
I see AIDS as normal sickness
I don’t even believe in AIDS
To me, AIDS can be cured
The noise about AIDS is more than
what AIDS entails
I believe too much talk about AIDS is
just to caution people about sex
I have not seen any body who died of
AIDS
I don’t control my sexual behavior
due to fear of AIDS
The Erra of AIDS will soon fade
If I become the president, I will chose
all agencies that fight against AIDS
Fight against is means of embezzling
on public fund
I don’t believe AIDS has no cure
People die of other illness due to the
fear of AIDS
Most people who were claim to have
die because of AIDS is not true
I see AIDS as western problem not
ours
64
SA
A
U
D
SD