Download FINAL EXAM STUDY GUIDE

AP English Language & Composition
TERMINOLOGY AND GRAMMAR STUDY GUIDE
(Mr. Gragg, Room 201, Holly High School, 6161 E. Holly Rd., Holly, MI 48442;
[email protected]; 248.328.3200 x-5259)
1. Rhetorical Triangle
1.1. Purpose
1.2. Subject
1.3. Specific Audience - the targeted group of real people envisioned by a writer (“sitting in front of
you”)
1.4. Implied Audience - the audience suggested by the finished writing (“peering over your
shoulder”)
2. Voice (sometimes called Rhetorical Techniques) – how you invite your readers on to the dance floor
2.1. Diction – selection of words (see below)
2.2. Detail – facts, observations, incidents
2.3. Imagery – sensory details used to describe, arouse emotions, or represent abstractions (see also
Tropes and Schemes below)
2.4. Syntax – arrangement of groups of words (see below)
2.5. Tone - author, speaker, or narrator implied attitude toward his/her subject; created by choice of
diction, details, imagery, and syntax; tone often shifts within a reading passage
3. Diction – selection of words (see list at end of document)
3.1. Concrete/abstract
3.2. Confused Words (see below)
3.3. Connotative (implied, suggestive meaning, in addition to literal meaning)/denotative (literal
meaning)
3.4. Formal: old-fashioned; scholarly; didactic; pedantic
3.5. Informal: colloquial; slang; idiom; jargon; cliché; gobbledygook
3.6. Monosyllabic/polysyllabic
3.7. Specific/general
3.8. Stop Words – DO NOT USE! (a lot, very, really, good, many, huge…)
3.9. Tropes (see below)
4. Syntax – arrangement of groups of words
4.1. Action Verbs – show physical/mental action (generally, minimize “to be” verb forms – am, is,
were, has been, have been, had been, would have been) (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/600/01/)
4.2. Active (vs. Passive) Voice – active voice generally preferred (verb expresses action performed
by subject, rather than on subject); only transitive verbs (those that take an object) can use passive
voice (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/600/01/); (http://www.winthrop.edu/wcenter/handoutsandlinks/passive.htm)
4.3. Clause – a group of words that contains a verb and its subject, used as a part of a sentence
4.4. Dangling Modifier Avoidance – place the noun/phrase modified after an introductory phrase
immediately after that phrase (bad example: “Exhausted by studying for the AP exam, the bed
was a welcome relief for the noble student.”) (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/597/01/)
4.5. Declarative (make a statement)/Interrogative (asks a question)/Imperative (gives a
command)/Exclamatory (makes an exclamation) Sentence Types
4.6. Juxtaposition –contrasting words/clauses/phrases placed next to each other for emphasis (“The
apparition of these faces in the crowd;/Petals on a wt, black, bough” Ezra Pound)
4.7. Loose Sentence – main clause comes first, followed by dependent grammatical elements (“The
teacher stormed into the room, a permanent grimace etched on his face, and gripped the willow
switch.”)
4.8. Natural (subject-verb-object) sentence order, versus Inverted (verb-subject or object-subject)
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4.9.
4.10.
4.11.
4.12.
4.13.
4.14.
Parallel structures - repeated grammatical structures at the word/phrase/clause level to balance
expressions (showing that ideas have equal importance), conserve words, and build climaxes (“I
came, I saw, I conquered.”) (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/623/01/)
Periodic Sentence - clauses arranged in order of climax, with the concluding information or
thought being withheld until the end (Willow switch dangling in mid-grip, the grimace-faced
teacher stormed into the room.”)
Phrase – a group of words acting as a single part of speech, without its own subject or verb
Pronoun/Antecedent Agreement – pronoun must agree in number and gender with antecedent (or
subject of the sentence); watch compound (and plural; or/nor singular) and indefinite
antecedents! (several/few/both/many/others are plural; most everything else –
each/one/neither/everyone/everybody/someone/somebody – is singular)
Punctuation – proper use of colon, semi-colon, comma, apostrophe, and capitalization
Run-On Sentence/Comma Splice Avoidance - two or more sentences separated by a comma
(comma splice), or by no punctuation at all – fix with periods, semi-colons, conjunctions
(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/598/02/)
4.15. Schemes (see below)
4.16. Sentence Fragment Avoidance - a separated part of a sentence that does not express a complete
thought – fix by adding (usually) missing subject or verb (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/620/01/)
4.17. Sentence Length – telegraphic (fewer than 5 words) and short (5-8 words) to punctuate a
moment; medium (15-20 words) and long (30+ words) to draw out a moment; generally, mix
lengths to avoid reader fatigue
4.18. Simple/compound/complex/compound-complex - sentences with different combinations of
independent and dependent clauses (simple = 1 independent clause; compound = 2 or more
independent clauses; complex = 1 independent + 1 or more dependent clauses; compoundcomplex = 2 or more independent clauses + 1 or more dependent clauses)
(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/598/01/); (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/600/01/)
4.19. Sounds: alliterative; cacophonous; euphonous; onomatopoetic (see also below Tropes &
Schemes)
4.20. Split Infinitive Avoidance – infinitives are verbal phrases, usually preceded by “to” that can
function as noun, adjective, or adverb – be sure to keep the “to” with the verb (source of
confusion: “to” also begins prepositional phrases)
(http://www.winthrop.edu/wcenter/handoutsandlinks/splitinf.htm)
4.21. Vague Pronoun Reference Avoidance – re-write sentence, or use direct noun, rather than “He said
she said it would be there” (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/595/01/)
5. Literary Devices - many definitions from Harmon’s A Handbook to Literature (Prentice, 2000)
5.1. Allegory AP - a sustained metaphor continued through whole sentences or even through a whole
discourse (Lord of the Flies)
5.2. Anecdote – short narrative detailing an interesting, simple episode or event, usually in the life of
an important person (“Dick Cheney accidentally shot his hunting partner…”)
5.3. Analogy – a comparison of two things, alike in certain respects; a simile is an expressed analogy,
a metaphor an implied one
5.4. Aphorism – concise statement or expression of a principle in pointed words (“Life is short, art is
long, opportunity fleeting, experimenting dangerous, reasoning difficult” Hippocrates)
5.5. Conceit – extended comparison by exploring metaphoric possibilities in a single subject (“A Rose
by any other name…”)
5.6. Epigram - a concise poem dealing pointedly and often satirically with a single thought or event
and often ending with an ingenious turn of thought
5.7. Fable – a brief tale told to point a moral; characters are frequently animals (Animal Farm,
Aesop’s tales, Mickey Mouse, The Muppets)
5.8. Homily – oral religious instruction, usually practical moral counsel (“Treat others as you would
have them treat you”)
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Motif – recurrent images, words, objects, phrases, or actions that unify literature (day/night in
Romeo & Juliet; The One Ring in Tolkien’s trilogy; the quest to return home in The Odyssey)
5.10. Parody - literary or musical imitation, usually for comic effect (Monty Python, “Saturday Night
Live”)
5.11. Satire – literary criticism using wit, irony, or sarcasm to ridicule human vice or folly (“A Modest
Proposal,” The Wizard of Oz)
5.9.
6. Tropes (a form of Diction, sometimes called Figurative Language or Rhetorical Devices) – meaning
is altered, twisted, “turned,” or “figured” from the usual or expected for emphasis or clarity:
(http://humanities.byu.edu/rhetoric/silva.htm)
6.1. Allusion AP - reference to famous/historical person/event
6.2. Epithet - descriptive phrase highlighting key traits (“the Brown Bomber;” “the master mariner”)
6.3. Euphemism AP – use of inoffensive language in place of hurtful terms (“vertically challenged”)
6.4. Hyperbole AP (Overstatement AP) - an intentionally exaggerated statement; for humor or emphasis
6.5. Irony AP - a contrast between appearance and reality
6.6. Litotes AP (Understatement) - deliberate understatement, especially when expressing a thought by
denying its opposite (“Oh it’s nothing; I can always get another Dad.”)
6.7. Meiosis (see Litotes)
6.8. Metaphor AP – indirect comparison of an implied trait between two unlike objects (“eagle eye”)
6.9. Metonymy - reference to someone/thing by naming one of its parts; the substitution of the name
of an object closely associated with a word for the word itself (“the crown,” “the pen (for
thoughts) is mightier than the sword (for military action)”)
6.10. Oxymoron - apparent paradox (self-contradiction) by juxtaposing words that seem to contradict,
yet hold a significant underlying truth (e.g., I must be cruel to be kind)
6.11. Paradox AP - a statement that is self-contradictory on the surface, yet holds an underlying truth
(“Death celebrates life.”)
6.12. Personification AP - reference to abstractions or inanimate objects as though they had human
qualities or abilities (“The King of Winds slapped away the pesky homes”)
6.13. Portmanteau – a word whose form and meaning is derived from blending two words (“smog”
from “smoke” and “fog”)
6.14. Pun AP (Paranomasia) – repetition of single word with two different meanings; two words that
sound alike but have different meaning; a single word with two different meanings in same
sentence
6.15. Rhetorical Question - any question asked for a purpose other than to obtain the information the
question asks (“What’s in a name?”)
6.16. Sarcasm AP - use of mockery, verbal taunts, or bitter irony, intended to hurt individuals (“How
about a date, honey?” said to an obese woman)
6.17. Simile AP– direct comparison of a stated trait between two like objects (“freshmen are sly as
foxes”
6.18. Synedoche - the use of a part to signify the whole, or vice-versa (“threads” (clothes), “wheels”
(car), “head of cattle,” “the point of my steel”)
AP
Appeared on previous AP exams. From Brenda Ammeral, Leelanu Seminar, July 2004.
7. Schemes (a form of Syntax) – word order deviates from the usual or expected in a “figured” way, for
emphasis or clarity: (http://humanities.byu.edu/rhetoric/silva.htm)
7.1. Figures of Order and Balance
7.1.1. Accumulatio - Bringing together various points made throughout a speech and presenting
them again in a forceful, climactic way
7.1.2. Amplification - the arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of increasing
importance, often in parallel structure
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7.1.3.
7.1.4.
7.1.5.
Antithesis AP - opposition of words (often) in a parallel construction (e.g., “We live to die”)
Climax – generally, the arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of increasing
importance, often in parallel structure – but technically, Climax = Anadiplosis (see below)
Parallelism - repeat grammatical structures at the word/phrase/clause level to balance
expressions (showing that ideas have equal importance), conserve words, and build climaxes
(“I came, I saw, I conquered.”) (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/623/01/)
7.2. Figures of Unusual Order
7.2.1. Anastrophe - violate normal syntactical arrangement (e.g., “Yoda, I be not”) for emphasis
7.2.2. Apostrophe - interrupt the narrative to vent an emotion at a person/personified object, present
or absent (Hamlet to audience: “The play’s the thing/Wherein I’ll catch the conscience of the
King.”)
7.2.3. Apposition - describe an object with an adjacent, explanatory element (e.g., Will
Shakespeare, the greatest of all playwrights) (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/596/01/)
7.2.4. Chiasmus - repeat an idea in inverted ABBA word order (e.g., “Eat to live; don’t live to eat;”
“People don’t care how much you know; they want to know how much you care.”)
7.2.5. Invective AP (Vituperation) – attack a subject (person, idea) for being evil
7.2.6. Parenthesis - insertion of a verbal unit that interrupts normal syntactical flow (“I am so angry
– I’m not sure why – that you missed curfew again.”)
7.3. Figures of Omission
7.3.1. Asyndeton – omission of conjunctions between clauses, for condensed, vehement effect or
hurried rhythm (“I came, I saw, I conquered.”)
7.3.2. Brachylogia – omission of conjunctions between single words, for broken, hurried delivery
7.3.3.
Circumlocution AP - “talking around" something, usually by supplying a descriptive phrase in
place of a name; a form of euphemism (Lord Montague: “Let two more summers wither in their
pride/Ere we may think her ripe to be a bride.”)
7.3.4.
7.3.5.
Scesis Onomaton - a series of successive, synonymous expressions (usually nouns-adjectives,
but not necessarily) (“Mr. Jones, master teacher, sentence scion, grammar gremlin, entered
the room”)
Syllepsis - When a single word that governs or modifies two or more others must be
understood differently with respect to each of those words, often with a witty or comical
effect. Not to be confused with zeugma. (“You held your breath and the door for me” - Alanis
Morissette)
7.3.6.
Zeugma - A general term describing when one part of speech (most often the main verb, but
sometimes a noun) governs two or more other parts of a sentence (often in a series). (“But
passion lends them power, time means, to meet.” Shakespeare R&J)
7.4. Figures of Repetition
7.4.1. Anadiplosis – repetition of last word/phrase from previous clause/line/sentence at beginning
of next clause/line/sentence – technically, Climax (see above) (“Glass from sand; sand from
quartz; quartz from mountains.”)
7.4.2. Anaphora - repeat a word/phrase at the beginning of successive lines, clauses, or sentences
7.4.3. Antanaclasis – repetition of word/phrase with meaning change in second use - "If you aren't
fired with enthusiasm, you will be fired with enthusiasm." —Vince Lombardi
7.4.4. Epistrophe - end a series of lines, phrases, clauses, or sentences with the same word or words
7.4.5. Polyptoton – using a cognate of a given word in close proximity (“With eager feeding food
doth choke the feeder.”)
7.4.6. Polysyndeton - many conjunctions between clauses, for slowed effect (“I went to the store,
and I parked my bike, and I gazed in the window, and I saw the red shoes…”)
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7.5. Figures of Sound
7.5.1. Alliteration AP - repetition of the same letter or sound within nearby words; generally, repeated
initial consonants (“We shall ship the special gift to the shores of Father Christmas.”)
7.5.2. Assonance - Repetition of similar vowel sounds, preceded and followed by different
consonants, in the stressed syllables of adjacent words (“Beyond the wand of the magic
lawn.”)
7.5.3. Cacophony –An expression that is deliberately either foul (such as crude language) or illsounding (such as from excessive alliteration) (“The dog gorged on the mangy grist of the
gangrene carcass.”)
7.5.4. Consonance – The repetition of consonants in words stressed in the same place (but whose
vowels differ). Also, a kind of inverted alliteration, in which final consonants, rather than
initial or medial ones, repeat in nearby words (“Mackinac Island: We dredge for fudge.”)
7.5.5. Euphony – combining phonetic elements to produce harmonious sounds (“I wandered lonely
as a cloud/That floats on high o’er vales and hills,/When all at once I saw a crowd,/A host, of
golden daffodils…” Wordsworth)
7.5.6. Onomatopoeia AP – using/inventing a word whose sound imitates that which it names
(“gobbledygook,” “boom,” “The buzzing of innumerable bees” – the “zz” and “mm” imitate
the bee sound)
8. Rhetorical Modes (sometimes called Rhetorical Strategies)
8.1. Argumentative/Persuasive
8.2. Description
8.3. Exposition – Cause/Effect, Compare/Contrast, Definition, Division, Exposition, Example,
Process Analysis
8.4. Narrative
9. Tone Vocabulary (also see “Tone Word” list at end)
9.1. Positive Tone/Attitude Words: Amused, Cheery, Compassionate, Complimentary, Confident,
Elated, Enthusiastic, Exuberant, Hopeful, Lighthearted, Loving, Optimistic, Passionate, Proud,
Sympathetic
9.2. Negative Tone/Attitude Words – Anger: Accusing, Angry, Bitter, Condemnatory, Disgusted,
Furious, Indignant, Inflammatory, Irritated, Outraged, Taunting, Threatening, Wrathful
9.3. Negative Tone/Attitude Words – Cynicism/Sarcasm: Bantering, Condescending,
Contemptuous, Critical, Cynical, Disdainful, Facetious, Flippant, Insolent, Ironic, Irreverent,
Patronizing, Pompous, Sarcastic, Sardonic, Satiric, Scornful
9.4. Negative Tone/Attitude Words – Anxiety/Worry: Admonitory, Apprehensive, Concerned,
Elegiac, Hopeless, Incredulous, Melancholic, Mournful, Questioning, Resigned, Sad, Serious,
Shocked, Sober, Solemn, Somber, Staid, Urgent
9.5. Neutral Tone/Attitude Words – Fear: Despairing, Disturbed, Fearful, Foreboding, Gloomy
9.6. Neutral Tone/Attitude Words: Authoritative, Baffled, Candid, Ceremonial, Clinical, Detached,
Didactic, Disbelieving, Factual, Formal, Informative, Instructive, Learned, Nostalgic, Objective,
Reminiscent, Restrained, Sentimental
10. Argument Structure
10.1. Toulmin Model (http://www.unl.edu/speech/comm109/Toulmin/index.htm)
10.1.1. Claim – the main point, or thesis
10.1.2. Data – evidence, grounds, support for the claim (includes logos/ethos/pathos appeals)
10.1.3. Warrant – assumption - usually accepted by both speaker and audience - that connects the
data to the claim; sometimes includes “Backing” to support the Warrant
10.1.4. Qualifier – modifies the claim (e.g., “many” students; “Reagan” Republicans)
10.1.5. Refutation - concession and rebuttal of opposing viewpoints
10.2. Aristotle Deductive/Inductive Reasoning – examples below from The Brief Bedford Reader
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10.2.1. Induction – making an inductive leap from bits of evidence to a generalization (“Interviews
with 19,000 conservative Republicans suggest that conservative Republicans favor less
government.”)
10.2.2. Deduction – making a deductive leap from a generalization to a particular situation
(“Conservative Republicans favor less government regulation of business; Dick Devos is a
conservative Republican; therefore, Dick Devos favors less government regulation.”)
10.2.3. Syllogism – the heart of deductive reasoning; a 3-step process using a major premise, minor
premise, and conclusion (“All men are mortal (major premise). Socrates is a man (minor
premise). Therefore, Socrates is mortal (conclusion).”)
10.3. Persuasive Appeals
10.3.1. Ethos – author/speaker use his/her character to persuade
10.3.2. Logos – author/speaker use of common ground with the audience to persuade
10.3.3. Pathos – author/speaker use of audience emotions to persuade
11. Logical Fallacies (http://www.winthrop.edu/wcenter/handoutsnew.htm)
11.1. Ad Hominem (attacking the person) – personal attack on speaker instead of argument (i.e., “The
President is a fool; his economic policy must be abysmal.”)
11.2. Bandwagon - claiming wide-spread popularity makes an idea viable (i.e., “Ninety-nine percent of
high school students think homework is a waste.”)
11.3. Begging the Question/Circular Logic – using a debatable point to “prove” the argument (i.e.,
“Students earn low grades on homework because it has questionable merit; homework should be
banished from high school.”)
11.4. Either/Or – over-simplifying complex choices to only two solutions (i.e., “Either Dad pays my
entire term bill, or I wash dishes for the rest of my life.”)
11.5. Equivocation – changing a word’s meaning without informing the audience (i.e. “I am an
accomplished actor and athlete, but my accomplishments in court outshine them all – O.J.
Simpson.”)
11.6. False Authority – wrongly using an authority in one field to make an argument in another (i.e.,
“Dr. Jarvic prescribes Casino Royale and Eragorn to fight the holiday blues.”)
11.7. Faulty Analogy – suggesting faulty conclusions based on vastly dissimilar comparisons (i.e.,
“The AP final exam was the Super Bowl of Room 211; rock-hard students bloodied their way to
ultimate victory over the noble teacher.”)
11.8. Hasty Generalization – drawing conclusions from too little evidence (i.e., “AP students earn low
grades on take-home essays; homework should be banned from high school.”)
11.9. Ignoring the Question – shifting focus to an un-related argument (i.e., “Mom, I missed curfew
because it took so long to scrape the snow off the windshield with my bare hands; can we talk
about raising my allowance?”)
11.10. Non Sequitur (it does not follow) - drawing a conclusion from an illogical relationship (i.e.,
“Mom, I missed curfew because of the blue moon.”)
11.11. Post Hoc/Faulty Cause – assuming that if B follows A, than A caused B (i.e., “Mom, there was a
blue moon and I missed curfew; I won’t be late for another 10 months.”)
11.12. Red Herring – shifting focus to a tangentially-related argument (i.e., “Mom, I missed curfew
because of the snowstorm; can we talk about a different curfew for when it snows?”)
11.13. Slippery Slope – assuming one event will cause unstoppable cascading events (i.e., “If poor
performance on homework continues like this, we won’t be able to attract good teachers, and the
school district will be forced to close down, turning the community into a drug haven.”)
11.14. Straw Man – refuting a minor point or unrelated argument (i.e., “Mom, I know making curfew is
my responsibility, regardless of the weather, but Channel 4 News simply can’t be trusted.”)
11.15. Tu Quoque (You’re Another) – make similar arguments against the audience (i.e., “Why vote
Republican?; the Democrats would mismanage the Iraq War just as poorly.”)
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AP English Language & Composition - Tone Words from Released AP Exams
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
accepting (1991)
admiring (1991)
afraid
agitated (1996)
allusive
angry (1991)
anticipatory (1991)
anxious (1991)
apathetic (1996)
apologetic (1991)
appreciative (1991)
arrogant (1991)
assessing (1991)
astonished
audacious
benevolent
bitter
boring
brash (1991)
candid
childish
cold
combative (1996)
compassionate
complimentary
condescending (1982)
confident (1991, 1996)
confused (1991)
contemplative (1996)
contemptuous (1991)
critical (1987)
cynical (1987, 2001)
defensive (2001)
derogatory (1987)
despairing (1996)
detached (1991, 2001)
didactic (1996)
disappointed (1991)
disdainful
disgusted (1987)
dramatic
dreamy
elegiac (1996)
embarrassed (1991)
empathetic (1991)
emphatic (2001)
enthusiastic (1987)
facetious
factual
1991, etc.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97.
98.
familiar (1991)
fanciful
fascinated (1991)
fearful (1991)
fervent (2001)
frivolous
giddy
happy
hollow
horrific
humorous (1991)
incredulous (1987)
indecisive (2001)
indifferent (1987)
informal
innocent (1991)
inquisitive (1991)
inspiring
intimate
ironic (1996, 2001)
irreverent
joking
joyous
laudatory
logical (1991)
lugubrious
macabre
maudlin
meditative (1991)
mocking
modest (2001)
mystified
naïve (1991)
nostalgic
objective (1987, 1991)
ominous (1991)
optimistic
patriotic
peaceful
pedantic
perplexed (1991)
pessimistic
pitiful
playful
poignant
proud
provocative
prudent (2001)
reasonable (1991)
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.
115.
116.
117.
118.
119.
120.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127.
128.
129.
130.
131.
132.
133.
134.
135.
136.
137.
138.
139.
140.
141.
142.
143.
144.
145.
146.
147.
reassuring (2001)
reflective
regretful (1991)
reminiscent (1991)
remorseful (1991)
repugnant (1991)
resentful (1991, 1996)
resigned (1991,1996)
respectful (1991)
restrained
retaliatory (1991)
reverent
sad
sarcastic (1991)
sardonic
satiric
scathing
scornful
seductive
self-aware (2001)
self-satisfied (1987)
sentimental
serious
sharp
shocking
silly
sinister
skeptical (1991)
solemn (2001)
somber
speculative (1991)
stern (1987)
subjective (1987)
superior (1982)
supportive (2001)
surprised (1991)
suspicious (1987)
sweet
sympathetic (1991, 1996)
tentative (2001)
tired
uncertain (1987, 1991)
upset
urgent
vibrant
whimsical
wistful
wry (1991)
zealous
Appeared on AP exam in year indicated. From Brenda Ammeral, Leelanu Seminar, July 2004
7
AP English Language & Composition – Diction Words from Released AP Exams
1. abstract
2. alliterative
3. allusive
4. analytical
5. arched
6. blunt
7. brusque
8. coarse
9. colloquial
10. compassionate
11. complex
12. concrete
13. connotation, negative
14. connotation, positive
15. deceptive
16. detailed
17. dull
18. enigmatic
19. erudite
20. formal
21. honest
22. horrifying
23. hyperbolic
24. inept
25. inflated
26. ironic
27. jargon
28. loaded
29. malicious
30. metaphoric
31. mimicking
32. onomatopoetic
33. oratorical
34. ordinary
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35. ornamental
36. personal
37. pointed
38. precise
39. refined
40. reflective
41. repetitive
42. scholarly
43. simple
44. skillful
45. slang
46. sobering
47. technical
48. tentative
49. unconventional
50. vivid
51. witty
AP English Language & Composition - Rhetorical Terms from Released AP Exams
1. ad hominem argumentAP
2. alarming the reader about a controversy
(2001)
3. allusionAP(citing authority)
4. analogical comparison (2001)
5. analogy (arguing by analogy)AP/extended
analogy
6. anecdotal narration (1982)
7. anecdoteAP(citing authority)
8. appeal to prejudice (1982)
9. appealing to authority (2001)
10. argue (1982)
11. arouse false expectations (1991)
12. berating the reader for believing information
(2001)
13. cause and effect (1982)
14. citing authorities (1996)
15. comparison and contrast (1982)
16. contrast (1987)
17. convincing reader of importance of issue
(2001)
18. counterbalancing weakness with virtue
(1996)
19. define (1987)
20. definition (1982)
21. description (1982)
22. develop an analogy (1982)
23. developing argument by strong personal
appeal (1996)
24. direct comparison (2001)
25. discrediting invalid views (2001)
26. disprove opposing viewpoints (1991)
27. enumerating standards (2001)
28. explain (1987)
29. extending metaphor to close the argument
(1996)
30. follow initial uncertainty with firm stand
(1991)
31.
generalizationAP
1991, etc.
32. generalize from a single instance to other
instances (1991)
33. humorAP
34. logos/pathos/ethos
35. marshalling facts to support a central idea
(1996)
36. move from abstract concept to concrete
example (1982)
37. move from argument to concession (1987)
38. move from fact to assumption (1987)
39. move from general statement to illustrations
(1987)
40. move from prehistory to historical
development (1982)
41. move from problem to resolution (1987)
42. move from theory to application of theory
(1987)
43. progressively expand the focus of attention
(1991)
44. providing specific examples (1996)
45. question/answer (1982)
46. reducing argument to paradox (1996)
47. refute (1982)
48. repetition (2001)
49. responding to anticipated criticisms (2001)
50. ridicule (1982)
51. shift from argument to a factual
contradiction of that argument (1982)
52. shift from general to particular (1982)
53. shift from one topic to another (1982)
54. stereotypical representations (1982)
55. support (1987)
56. syllogism
57. taking exception to previously advanced
conception of an idea (1996)
58. unsupported assertions (1982)
59. using analogy to make abstraction concrete
(1996)
60. wit
Appeared on AP exam in year indicated. From Brenda Ammeral, Leelanu Seminar, July 2004
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Confused Words: Definitions
1.
A, an- A is used before words that begin with a consonant sound: an is used before words that begin with a
vowel sound.
Ex.
A uniform. An honor.
2. Accept, except- Accept means to agree to receive and except means to exclude.
Ex. If you offer me jellybeans I will gladly accept it, except for the black ones.
3. Affect, effect- Affect means “to influence”; the verb effect means “to produce”.
Ex.
Mark’s giggle affected the preacher, but effected a pinch from his mom.
4. Allusion, illusion- Allusion is an indirect reference to something; illusion is a false picture or idea.
Ex.
The person who makes allusions to his strength tries to reinforce the illusion that he’s
strong.
5. Already, all ready- Already is an adverb meaning previously and all ready is an adjective phrase meaning
prepared.
Ex.
When the parents awoke the children had already eaten breakfast.
The game started once the players where all ready.
6. Altogether, all together- Altogether is an adverb meaning completely and all together is and adjective
meaning in a group.
Ex.
When he first saw the examination questions, he was altogether baffled.
The wedding guests were gathered all together in the garden.
7. Assure, ensure, insure- Assure means to place confidence in, ensure means to make sure something happens,
and insure means to issue an insurance policy.
Ex.
I assure you it will work
I will ensure that you will get what you deserve
Before you drive your car you must first insure it.
8. Anyway, anyways- Anyways is the incorrect form of anyway
9. Between, Among- Between introduces two items and among introduces more than two.
Ex.
The host divided the pie between Dan and Phil.
The host divided the pie among Dan, Phil, Paul, and Bob.
10. Can, may- Can refers to ability, and May refers to permission
Ex.
The child asked the teacher, “may I use the restroom?” The teacher replied, “I hope you
can.”
11. Chose, choose- Chose is the past tense of the verb choose
Ex
Martin Luther King chose to write The Strength to Love-a book that says choosing a
nonviolent response to injustice takes strength.
12. Compliment, complement- Compliment, is most often referred to nice things said to someone or about
something, and complement has a number of meanings associated with matching or completing.
Ex.
He paid me the compliment of admiring my bike.
Her yellow socks complemented her orange shoes.
13. e.g., i.e.,- These abbreviations are Latin in origin, and are used to clarify preceding statements. e.g., means “for
example,” and i.e., means “that is.”
Ex.
Farm animals (e.g., cows, chickens) are a noisy lot.
Farm animals aren’t worth a wooden nickel (i.e., they are cheap).
14. Farther, further- Farther refers to a physical distance; further refers to additional time, or degree.
Ex.
The farther she walks down the path that is her life, the further she gets toward
understanding her need to keep on walking.
15. Good, well- Good is an adjective; well is nearly always an adverb. (When used to indicate state of health, well
is an adjective.)
Ex.
The good guy won the battle.
When I visited my friend I noticed that he wasn’t feeling well.
16. I, me, myself- I is used as a subject, me is an object, and myself can only be used when you have used “I”
earlier in the sentence.
Ex.
I sent a letter to him. He sent a letter to me. I sent myself a letter.
17. It’s, its- It’s is the contraction of “it is.” Its is the possessive form of “it.”
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18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
Ex.
It’s fair to say that the movie hasn’t lost its appeal to my little brother even after 10
viewings.
Lay, lie- Lay means “to place;” it is a transitive verb. Lie means to recline; it is an intransitive verb.
Ex.
If I lay another book on my reading table, I wont have room for anything else.
The fat cat lies down.
Loose, lose, loss- Loose means “free, untied, unrestricted”; Lose means to misplace or fail to find or control;”
loss means “something that is lost.”
Ex.
The hero shook the knot until it came loose.
You will lose your game today.
One woman’s loss is another woman’s gain.
Past, passed- Passed is a verb. Past can be used as a noun, as an adjective, or as a preposition.
Ex.
The Escort passed my Vette. (Verb)
Many senior citizens hold dearly to the past. (Noun)
I’m sorry, but my past life is not your business. (Adjective)
Old Rosebud walked past us and never smelled the apples. (Preposition)
That, which- That is the defining, or restrictive, pronoun for essential clauses (called essential because it is
essential to the meaning of the sentence): which is the non-defining, or nonrestrictive, pronoun for nonessential
clauses (called nonessential because while it adds information, the clause could be removed without changing
the meaning of the sentence); nonessential clauses are set off by commas.
Ex.
The book that she loaned me is missing.
The house, which Greg built, burned down last night.
Than, then- Than is used in a comparison; then tells when.
Ex.
The Yankees loss to the Red Sox was more than fans could bear, both then and now.
There, their, they’re- There indicates a place, their is the possessive meaning “of them” or “belonging to
them”, and they’re is short for “they are”.
Ex.
They’re in their house over there.
Threw, through- Threw is the past tense of “throw.” Through means “passing from one side of something to
the other.”
Ex.
I threw the ball to the catcher
We drove through the state yesterday.
To, too, two- To is a preposition that can mean “in the direction of.” To also is used to form an infinitive. Too
means “also” or “very.” Two is the number.
Ex.
The two divers were careful not to swim down to the sunken ship too quickly.
Way, weigh- Way means “path or route.” Weigh means “to measure weight.”
Ex.
Since our dog weighs too much, we now take him on walks all the way around the park.
Weather, whether- Weather refers to the condition of the atmosphere. Whether refers to a possibility.
Ex.
Because of the inclement weather, Coach Millhouse didn’t know whether or to schedule
another practice.
Who, which, that- Who refers to people. Which refers to nonliving objects or to animals. (Which should
never refer to people.) That may refer to animals, people, or nonliving objects.
Ex.
Who stole the cookie from the cookie jar?
Which cookie is mine?
Who, whom- Who is used as the subject of a verb; whom is used as the object of a preposition or as a direct
object.
Ex.
To whom do we owe our thanks for these pizzas? And who ordered the one with
pepperoni and pineapple?
Who’s, whose- Who’s is the contraction for “who is.” Whose is the possessive pronoun.
Ex.
Whose car are we using, and who’s riding shotgun?
Your, you’re yours- Your is a possessive pronoun. You’re is the contraction for “you are.” Yours is the
pronoun that is short for “something that belongs to you.
Ex.
Are your kisses always this short?
No, only when you’re standing on my feet.
This pen is yours.
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