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Running Head: DESIGN OF INSTRUCTION
Design of Instruction – Theory to Practice
Chantae Garrett, Michelle Cairy, Raul Garcia, and Kenneth Guidry
California State University, Long Beach
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Design of Instruction – Theory to Practice
Introduction
What is learning? According to the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, learning is
usually defined as a change in knowledge or skill through instruction or study (2009). Yet,
changes caused by development (such as growing taller) are not happenstances of learning.
Neither are characteristics of babies (such as crying from hunger) present at birth. As a matter of
fact, humans begin learning so much from the day we are born that learning and development are
inseparable. This analogy of human development signifies the fundamentals of education. Just as
human development is a natural process, so is learning in the classroom. But why do educators
have problems when it comes to instruction? And why is research and theory connected to
instructional design and planning?
How instruction is designed is based on the problems and needs of the learners. An
educator’s problem is not how to get them to learn. Rather, it is how to help them learn specific
information, skills, and concepts that will be useful for their every day life as they enter into
adulthood. The Behavior, Cognitive, and Constructive are three distinct perspectives about the
theory of learning and instructional design. This paper will compare the three approaches to
instructional design and give examples of how technology is incorporated into everyday teaching
strategies and the learning process.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a learning theory in which a learner learns through conditioning of a
particular task. This conditioning happens through what is called a Stimulus-Response or S-R
Cycle Approach. A learner is given a stimulus and he or she must give some kind of response. In
addition, behaviorism learning is known to be repetitious and goal-oriented. When it comes to
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designing computer–enhanced instruction (CEI), it should provide learners with drill and practice
tasks. The tasks should also be followed by giving students a reward for having the correct
response.
Behaviorism evolves from simple to more complex tasks as the learner progresses. When
it comes to assessing behaviorism learning, a student should be evaluated on how well he or she
performed the task that was initially presented as an objective. Feedback should be given as soon
as the learner performs a certain task. It is better served if the feedback is positive so learners can
feel that they have accomplished something. This produces a sense of self-confidence. The
transfer of learning in the behaviorist theory occurs when the learner can apply the knowledge in
similar, yet slightly different situations. For example, when my son is given flashcards to
practice addition and subtraction, transfer of learning occurs when he takes a paper and pencil
test at school.
One example of an educational software program that uses the behaviorist theory is by
DK entitled “My First Math Adventure - Adding and Subtracting”. In this software, the learner
learns how to problem solve and better understand math symbols while playing a game. The
objective is for the learner to drag and drop the correct answer to the math problems. If he or she
produces a correct answer, then a reward is given. However, if the learner produces an incorrect
answer, the game will not allow him or her to continue dragging the object until the answer is
correct.
This also correlates with classroom instruction in many different ways. A student has to
show proficiency in grade level concepts before he or she can enter into the next grade.
Furthermore, when a teacher instructs a math lesson for example, it does not always have to be
through the traditional pencil and paper and book method. One can easily incorporate technology
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as a teaching strategy based on the needs of students. Allowing them to utilize computers and
play math games is one form of informal assessment that helps evaluate a student’s
understanding of new concepts and reinforce the old.
Cognitivism
Cognitivism can be best explained as such:
Cognitive theorists recognize that much learning involves
associations established through contiguity and repetition. They
also acknowledge the importance of reinforcement, although they
stress its role in providing feedback about the correctness of
responses over its role as a motivator. (Good and Brophy, 1990,
pp. 187)
To be compared to behaviorism, cognitivism is based more on the thought processes; whereas,
behaviorism focuses on observable changes in behavior. Constructivism is more focused on how
the learner will problem solve in an uncertain situation based on their experiences.
One website that focuses strictly on increasing cognitivism is Lumosity (www.lumosity.com).
There are a variety of games that you can play to raise your Brain Performance Index (BPI). This
BPI is used to compare yourself with others and track your progress. Some of the games on the
site include skills such as practicing speed, flexibility, problem solving, memory and attention,
through repetition and positive reinforcement. Another game on Luminosity for example, has the
learner come up with words that start with the letters “sch” or “ins” (flexibility and verbal
fluency), and so on. The games on this website help influence learning by testing the brain’s
ability to remember previous content and match it with what is present (memory and information
processing).
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Luminosity provides an easy and convenient place to give your brain a good cognitive
workout. With this type of computer technology, learning can take place whenever there is an
available computer. Schools can use this website as a way to introduce students to this type of
cognitive learning and students can sharpen their skills daily. The principles addressed on this
website are relevant to the design of this computer-enhanced instruction. It includes repletion and
reinforcement in every game. The structure of this type of instruction can be left up to the learner
in terms of what games to play.
All of the games benefit cognitive thinking, but it is important to take a pre-test or “basic
training course” to see what specific type of training the brain needs. Learning can be evaluated
by comparing scores with peers or by tracking one’s own progress over a give time period.
Feedback is given right away and it is positive. There are also sound effects notifying the learner
of correct answers. Transfer can occur in numerous ways; for example, there is a game that
sharpens math skills. Rain drops fall from the top of the screen. Before they hit the puddle, you
have to answer the problem correctly. As you progress, the game gets harder and more rain drops
fall, quickening the pace. This can transfer to a classroom where a timed test is given assessing
basic facts or there is help with doing harder problems such as long division more accurately.
Constructivism
In brief, constructivism is the process where:
Learners construct their own reality or at least interpret it based
upon their perceptions of experiences, so an individual's
knowledge is a function of one's prior experiences, mental
structures, and beliefs that are used to interpret objects and events.
What someone knows is grounded in perception of the physical
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and social experiences which are comprehended by the mind.
(Jonasson, 1991)
If one compares behaviorism to congitivism, it leans more towards thought processing; whereas,
behaviorism focuses on observable changes in behavior. There are also similarities between
cognitivism and constructivism. While they are very different theoretical perspectives,
cognitivism shares this perspective:
An example of their compatibility is the fact that they share the
analogy of comparing the processes of the mind to that of a
computer possessing an information processor that allows the
individual to not just shuffle data... (Perkins, 1991, p.21 in
Schwier, 1998)
The website that I found to be an example of constructivism is called Funbrain
(http://www.funbrain.com/). This site contains an extensive collection of interactive computer
games for children in all subjects. My particular focus is on the math games within the site,
although, all of the games were designed with each of the learning theories in mind. There was a
strong correlation between many of the games and the constructivist view which exercises the
acquisition of knowledge by building up from prior knowledge. For instance, with math facts,
the user has to build upon his or her basic math skills in order to complete more complex
mathematical operations. Simple skills are required to complete and participate in the more
advanced interactive games.
The structure of this website allows the user to independently select activities within a
structured process that will guide him or her throughout the navigation. In addition, it provides
the user with corrective reinforcement and keeps track of progress through an easy registration
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feature. In essence, based on a user’s experience, he or she may believe that a point of mastery
will eventually be reached after continuous record keeping shows the passing of each math level.
Conclusion
A solid foundation in learning theory is an important part of instructional design for
educators because it covers all aspects of teaching practices, even with educational technology.
Whether we realize it or not, we constantly apply different learning theories to classroom
instruction based on the needs of our students and the context in which they are taught. No one
theory is better or more useful than the other. Each of them respectively, gives educators a sense
of seeing the world through different perspectives. Since learning is an ongoing process that
involves many factors, it cannot be justified by one theory alone. The ideal learning theory
would likely be a combination of all three.
For instance, this paper presented examples of how instruction can be modified to
incorporate technology that was designed based on one of the three theories. All of the software
programs, websites, and games noted could be used as instructional strategies in the classroom,
with no one more or less valuable than the other. Any technology program serves its purpose in
instructional design if it is used to meet the need of an individual student or students. What we
do know for sure is that the learning theories are a source of verified instructional strategies
(Ertmer and Newby, 1993). Each of them provides a foundation for human learning and
instructional design.
Design of Instruction
References
Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing
critical features from an instructional perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly,
6(4), 50-72.
Good, T. L., & Brophy, J. E. (1990). Educational psychology: A realistic approach. (4th ed.).
White Plains, NY: Longman.
Jonassen, D. H. (1991). Objectivism versus constructivism: Do we need a new philosophical
paradigm? Educational Technology Research and Development, 39(3), 5-14.
Learning. (2009). In Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved March 19, 2009, from
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/learning
Perkins, 1991, p. 21 in Schwier, 1998.
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