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Design of Instruction 1 Running Head: DESIGN OF INSTRUCTION Design of Instruction – Theory to Practice Chantae Garrett, Michelle Cairy, Raul Garcia, and Kenneth Guidry California State University, Long Beach Design of Instruction 2 Design of Instruction – Theory to Practice Introduction What is learning? According to the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, learning is usually defined as a change in knowledge or skill through instruction or study (2009). Yet, changes caused by development (such as growing taller) are not happenstances of learning. Neither are characteristics of babies (such as crying from hunger) present at birth. As a matter of fact, humans begin learning so much from the day we are born that learning and development are inseparable. This analogy of human development signifies the fundamentals of education. Just as human development is a natural process, so is learning in the classroom. But why do educators have problems when it comes to instruction? And why is research and theory connected to instructional design and planning? How instruction is designed is based on the problems and needs of the learners. An educator’s problem is not how to get them to learn. Rather, it is how to help them learn specific information, skills, and concepts that will be useful for their every day life as they enter into adulthood. The Behavior, Cognitive, and Constructive are three distinct perspectives about the theory of learning and instructional design. This paper will compare the three approaches to instructional design and give examples of how technology is incorporated into everyday teaching strategies and the learning process. Behaviorism Behaviorism is a learning theory in which a learner learns through conditioning of a particular task. This conditioning happens through what is called a Stimulus-Response or S-R Cycle Approach. A learner is given a stimulus and he or she must give some kind of response. In addition, behaviorism learning is known to be repetitious and goal-oriented. When it comes to Design of Instruction 3 designing computer–enhanced instruction (CEI), it should provide learners with drill and practice tasks. The tasks should also be followed by giving students a reward for having the correct response. Behaviorism evolves from simple to more complex tasks as the learner progresses. When it comes to assessing behaviorism learning, a student should be evaluated on how well he or she performed the task that was initially presented as an objective. Feedback should be given as soon as the learner performs a certain task. It is better served if the feedback is positive so learners can feel that they have accomplished something. This produces a sense of self-confidence. The transfer of learning in the behaviorist theory occurs when the learner can apply the knowledge in similar, yet slightly different situations. For example, when my son is given flashcards to practice addition and subtraction, transfer of learning occurs when he takes a paper and pencil test at school. One example of an educational software program that uses the behaviorist theory is by DK entitled “My First Math Adventure - Adding and Subtracting”. In this software, the learner learns how to problem solve and better understand math symbols while playing a game. The objective is for the learner to drag and drop the correct answer to the math problems. If he or she produces a correct answer, then a reward is given. However, if the learner produces an incorrect answer, the game will not allow him or her to continue dragging the object until the answer is correct. This also correlates with classroom instruction in many different ways. A student has to show proficiency in grade level concepts before he or she can enter into the next grade. Furthermore, when a teacher instructs a math lesson for example, it does not always have to be through the traditional pencil and paper and book method. One can easily incorporate technology Design of Instruction 4 as a teaching strategy based on the needs of students. Allowing them to utilize computers and play math games is one form of informal assessment that helps evaluate a student’s understanding of new concepts and reinforce the old. Cognitivism Cognitivism can be best explained as such: Cognitive theorists recognize that much learning involves associations established through contiguity and repetition. They also acknowledge the importance of reinforcement, although they stress its role in providing feedback about the correctness of responses over its role as a motivator. (Good and Brophy, 1990, pp. 187) To be compared to behaviorism, cognitivism is based more on the thought processes; whereas, behaviorism focuses on observable changes in behavior. Constructivism is more focused on how the learner will problem solve in an uncertain situation based on their experiences. One website that focuses strictly on increasing cognitivism is Lumosity (www.lumosity.com). There are a variety of games that you can play to raise your Brain Performance Index (BPI). This BPI is used to compare yourself with others and track your progress. Some of the games on the site include skills such as practicing speed, flexibility, problem solving, memory and attention, through repetition and positive reinforcement. Another game on Luminosity for example, has the learner come up with words that start with the letters “sch” or “ins” (flexibility and verbal fluency), and so on. The games on this website help influence learning by testing the brain’s ability to remember previous content and match it with what is present (memory and information processing). Design of Instruction 5 Luminosity provides an easy and convenient place to give your brain a good cognitive workout. With this type of computer technology, learning can take place whenever there is an available computer. Schools can use this website as a way to introduce students to this type of cognitive learning and students can sharpen their skills daily. The principles addressed on this website are relevant to the design of this computer-enhanced instruction. It includes repletion and reinforcement in every game. The structure of this type of instruction can be left up to the learner in terms of what games to play. All of the games benefit cognitive thinking, but it is important to take a pre-test or “basic training course” to see what specific type of training the brain needs. Learning can be evaluated by comparing scores with peers or by tracking one’s own progress over a give time period. Feedback is given right away and it is positive. There are also sound effects notifying the learner of correct answers. Transfer can occur in numerous ways; for example, there is a game that sharpens math skills. Rain drops fall from the top of the screen. Before they hit the puddle, you have to answer the problem correctly. As you progress, the game gets harder and more rain drops fall, quickening the pace. This can transfer to a classroom where a timed test is given assessing basic facts or there is help with doing harder problems such as long division more accurately. Constructivism In brief, constructivism is the process where: Learners construct their own reality or at least interpret it based upon their perceptions of experiences, so an individual's knowledge is a function of one's prior experiences, mental structures, and beliefs that are used to interpret objects and events. What someone knows is grounded in perception of the physical Design of Instruction 6 and social experiences which are comprehended by the mind. (Jonasson, 1991) If one compares behaviorism to congitivism, it leans more towards thought processing; whereas, behaviorism focuses on observable changes in behavior. There are also similarities between cognitivism and constructivism. While they are very different theoretical perspectives, cognitivism shares this perspective: An example of their compatibility is the fact that they share the analogy of comparing the processes of the mind to that of a computer possessing an information processor that allows the individual to not just shuffle data... (Perkins, 1991, p.21 in Schwier, 1998) The website that I found to be an example of constructivism is called Funbrain (http://www.funbrain.com/). This site contains an extensive collection of interactive computer games for children in all subjects. My particular focus is on the math games within the site, although, all of the games were designed with each of the learning theories in mind. There was a strong correlation between many of the games and the constructivist view which exercises the acquisition of knowledge by building up from prior knowledge. For instance, with math facts, the user has to build upon his or her basic math skills in order to complete more complex mathematical operations. Simple skills are required to complete and participate in the more advanced interactive games. The structure of this website allows the user to independently select activities within a structured process that will guide him or her throughout the navigation. In addition, it provides the user with corrective reinforcement and keeps track of progress through an easy registration Design of Instruction 7 feature. In essence, based on a user’s experience, he or she may believe that a point of mastery will eventually be reached after continuous record keeping shows the passing of each math level. Conclusion A solid foundation in learning theory is an important part of instructional design for educators because it covers all aspects of teaching practices, even with educational technology. Whether we realize it or not, we constantly apply different learning theories to classroom instruction based on the needs of our students and the context in which they are taught. No one theory is better or more useful than the other. Each of them respectively, gives educators a sense of seeing the world through different perspectives. Since learning is an ongoing process that involves many factors, it cannot be justified by one theory alone. The ideal learning theory would likely be a combination of all three. For instance, this paper presented examples of how instruction can be modified to incorporate technology that was designed based on one of the three theories. All of the software programs, websites, and games noted could be used as instructional strategies in the classroom, with no one more or less valuable than the other. Any technology program serves its purpose in instructional design if it is used to meet the need of an individual student or students. What we do know for sure is that the learning theories are a source of verified instructional strategies (Ertmer and Newby, 1993). Each of them provides a foundation for human learning and instructional design. Design of Instruction References Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50-72. Good, T. L., & Brophy, J. E. (1990). Educational psychology: A realistic approach. (4th ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman. Jonassen, D. H. (1991). Objectivism versus constructivism: Do we need a new philosophical paradigm? Educational Technology Research and Development, 39(3), 5-14. Learning. (2009). In Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved March 19, 2009, from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/learning Perkins, 1991, p. 21 in Schwier, 1998. 8