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Power Systems 2
Cornerstone Electronics Technology and Robotics III
Notes primarily from “Underwater Robotics – Science Design and Fabrication”, an excellent book for
the design, fabrication, and operation of Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs)
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Administration:
o Prayer
Power Requirements for Your Underwater Vehicle:
o Remember the difference between energy and power. Energy is the capacity
of a physical system to perform work. Power is the rate at which work is
performed or energy is transmitted. Energy is what is delivered and power is
the rate at which it is delivered. A system onboard an ROV may consume
more energy over time even though it does not demand as much power as
another systems on board. Refer to Figure 1.
Figure 1: Graphs Showing the Energy and Power Consumed by Two Systems on an
ROV during a Mission
o Power for Propulsion:
 A general rule of power consumption for small ROVs and AUVs. This
rule is derived from empirical data for electric motor thrusters with wellmatched propellers: At speeds less than 1 m/s, a small ROV or AUV will
probably use 20 – 40 watts of electrical power per pound of thrust.
Figure 2: General Rule for Power Demand of Electrical Motor Thruster on a Small ROV
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Theoretical power demand for a vehicle at a fixed speed:
Power = Drag x Speed
Where:
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Power in watts (1 watt = 1 j/s = 1 Nm/s)
Drag in newtons
Speed in m/s
o Power Consumption for Other High-Power Systems:
 Other small ROV systems that consume high power include motors for
payloads, bright lights, and some cameras. Their power consumption
will normally be consistent with their specifications. Remember that you
can calculate power demand of a device knowing its required voltage
and current draw, P = V x I.
Power Budget:
o A power budget summarizes the power consumption of your vehicle. The
sample ROV power budget in Table 1 is for a 1.5 hour mission and is taken
from the textbook.
Table 1: Sample Power Budget
o In the unlikely event that all the ROV devices turned on at one time, the “total
maximum power” column provides the maximum power demand.
o The sum of the “total energy” is crucial for AUVs with on-board batteries that
must carry their power source. When the sum is closely matched to the
battery rating, read the battery specifications to make sure that the discharge
rate and other factors do not affect the battery performance while on the
mission.
o Notice that power-hungry devices do not automatically indicate that they
consume a significant amount of energy, for example, the camera tilt motor.
On the other hand, lower-power devices such as wireless Ethernet network
switch may consume considerable energy.
o It is better to be conservative when you develop the power budget so that the
vehicle will perform consistently while on its missions.
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Electric Power Sources for Small Vehicles:
o There are two primary sources of electrical power to drive your vehicle,
batteries or wall outlets. In the United States, electricity from the wall outlet is
115 VAC at 60 Hz. This source is not recommended for most underwater
vehicle projects, especially for beginners or school groups because of
the danger of fatal electric shock. Refer to the textbook for the dangers of
AC power and safety procedures when working with AC electrical power.
Though batteries have their own safety issues, they are usually safer when
working around water and supply an excellent source of electrical power.
o Introduction to Batteries:
 Batteries offer several advantages in addition to their relative safety:
 They are easy to find and relatively inexpensive.
 They can store plenty of energy for operating a small underwater
vehicle.
 Most can be placed into positions other than right side-up.
 Batteries are clean; they are not greasy or oily.
 Running power through wires makes power distribution to the
onboard systems easy.
 Information regarding battery specifications and operation is
readily available on the web or other sources.
 Battery technology is evolving at a rapid rate because of consumer
demand for smaller, lighter and more powerful batteries. This progress
gives more options to the underwater vehicle designer.
 What is a Battery? A battery stores chemical energy, which it converts
to electrical energy.
 A typical battery, such as a car battery, is composed of an
arrangement of galvanic cells. Each cell contains two metal
electrodes, separate from each other, immersed within an
electrolyte containing both positive and negative ions. A chemical
reaction between the electrodes and the electrolyte takes place.
This gives rise to an electric potential between the electrodes,
which are typically linked together in series and parallel to one
another in order to provide the desired voltage at the battery
terminals (for example, a 12 volt car battery).
 Each galvanic cell develops a voltage from less than 1 volt to a
maximum of 3 volts. Individual cells are interconnected to form a
battery. For example, 6 - 1.5 volt alkaline batteries connected in
series make up a 9 volt battery.
Figure 3: 6 – 1.5 Volt Cells Are Connected in Series to Form a 9 Volt Battery
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Primary Batteries: A cell in which an irreversible chemical reaction
generates electricity; a cell that cannot be recharged (for one-time use).
 Primary cells are also called dry cells. A dry cell is a cell in which
the electrolyte is absorbed into a paper or made into a paste.
Figure 4: Primary Battery Construction (Carbon-Zinc Battery)
 Common used primary batteries are alkaline dry cells and lithium
batteries.
 Secondary Batteries:
 A secondary battery is a battery that produces electric current
through a chemical reaction which can be reversed; a secondary
battery can be recharged.
 A secondary cell can be recharged by forcing a current through
the battery in the opposite direction of the discharge current.
 Chemical formulas for lead-acid battery charging:
http://openbookproject.net//electricCircuits/DC/DC_11.html
Figure 5: 12.6 Volt Lead-Acid Car Battery Internal Connections
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Battery Safety: Please refer to the textbook regarding this crucial
topic, battery safety.
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Battery Performance Characteristics:
 Voltage:
o Common battery voltages:
 Familiar AAA, AA, C, and D are normally single-cell
batteries with voltages between 1.2 and 1.5 volts.
 The “transistor battery” supplies 9 volts.
 Lead-acid batteries such as car batteries are 12 –
13.5 volts.
 There are many specialty battery sizes and shapes
for customized uses that furnish voltages from few
volts to over 100 volts.
o Be aware that nominal voltage on a battery may not be the
actual voltage. For example, a 12 volt car battery may
actually give 13.6 volts when fully charged and then drop
off below 12 volts as it discharges.
o No-load voltage: The voltage level present at the output
terminals when a no load is applied. Most batteries are
considered “dead” long before their no-load voltages reach
zero volts. When a car battery with a no-load voltage of 10
volts is connected to a robust load, its voltage will fall
significantly and act, in effect, as a dead battery.
Figure 6: Checking the No-Load Voltage of a Battery
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o Internal resistance: If you use a voltmeter to measure the
open circuit voltage of an AA size battery, you will find that
the voltage is about 1.5 V. But if you are using a circuit to
draw a large current from the battery, you will find that the
voltage across the battery is less than 1.5 V. This is
because the battery itself has an intrinsic resistance called
internal resistance. One way to think of internal resistance
is to imagine a real battery as being made up of an ideal
battery of voltage Vi, connecting in series with a resistor R
which represents the internal resistance (see Figure 7).
When no current is drawn from the battery, the voltage
drop across the battery is of course Vi, V = Vi. But when a
current I is drawn from the battery, there is a voltage drop I
x R across the resistor, so the voltage V across the battery
is decreased to:
V = Vi – I R
Therefore, the larger the current drawn by the load, the
smaller the voltage, V of the battery. The internal
resistance of a battery is usually quite small.
Figure 7: Representing Internal Resistance in a Battery
An experiment that measures the internal resistance of a
battery is found at: http://www.hkphy.org/energy/commercial/act_int_resist_e.html
o Multiple voltage requirements: All of the electrical systems
on a vehicle may not function at the same voltage. For
example, microcontroller control circuits normally work at
3.3 or 5 VDC, while thrusters operate in general at higher
voltages such as 12 or 24 VDC. One way you can supply
different voltages to the vehicle is by providing separate
batteries for each voltage level. Another method is to
choose a battery rated at the highest voltage needed, and
then reduce the high voltage for the lower voltage circuits
using voltage regulators or DC-to-DC converters.
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Primary Versus Secondary Batteries:
o The initial cost of primary batteries is typically less than
secondary batteries; however, they cannot be recharged.
Over the lifetime of a project, the replacement cost for
primary batteries can exceed the higher initial cost of
rechargeable secondary batteries.
Energy Capacity: The total amount of useful energy stored in a
battery.
o The energy capacity of large batteries is specified in amphours, smaller batteries in milliamp-hours. Although amps
x time is not a valid energy unit, it is a convenient unit for
battery capacity. Amp-hours are the product of amps
multiplied by hours. For example,
1 amp-hour = 1 amp x 1 hour
1 amp-hour = 5 amp x 0.2 hour
1 amp-hour = 10 amp x 0.1 hour
200 amp-hour = 50 amp x 4 hour
A battery with a capacity of 1 amp-hour should ideally be
able to continuously supply a current of 1 amp to a load for
exactly 1 hour before becoming completely discharged. In
summary, the higher the Ah rating, the longer the battery
will last.
o Calculating the energy capacity of a battery in watt-hours
(a valid energy unit):
Energy Capacity = Power x Time
Since Power = Voltage x Current,
Energy Capacity = Voltage x Current x Time
For example, if a 12 V battery is rated at 5 amp-hours, the
capacity in watt-hours is:
Energy Capacity = 12 V x 5 Ah
Energy Capacity = 60 Wh
Figure 8: Lead-Acid Battery with
a 20-Hour Discharge Rate
o Caution #1: The actual number of amp-hours a battery
supplies is dependent upon the level of current draw from
the battery. The manufacturer specifies the length of
discharge time for their battery. For example, a lead-acid
battery discharge time is frequently 20 hours. If your
discharge rate is faster than the specified rate, the actual
amp-hours delivered will be less than the battery rating.
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o Caution #2: Different manufacturers have different
definitions for a “dead battery”. This will affect the actual
amp-hours the battery will deliver.
Energy Density: Refer to the textbook.
Weight: Refer to the textbook.
Maximum Power Output (Power Capacity):
o Remember, power is the rate at which work is done or
energy is transferred. It is the work/time or energy/time
ratio. A battery may have enough stored energy for your
mission, yet it may not have sufficient power capacity to
supply the power demand that your ROV requires.
o The maximum discharge current a battery can provide is
sometimes called the “surge current” (in amps).
o C-rate (units of per hour) is another form of stating the
maximum current. It is a conversion factor to convert the
amp-hour rating into the maximum current. A battery with
an Ah rating of 4 and a C-rating of 6 can deliver a
maximum current of 4 Ah x 6/h = 24 A. The higher the Crating, the higher the maximum current output available.
Discharge Curves:
o Batteries lose voltage in the process of discharge their
energy. Discharge curves plots the drop in voltage as the
capacity is depleted.
Figure 9: Battery Discharge Curve
for a Lithium Ion Battery
Each line on the graph is the voltage
(V) as the capacity (Ah) is expended at
a constant current.
Current at 1C = 8Ah x 1/hr = 8 A.
Current at 18C = 8 Ah x 18/hr = 144 A.
The energy capacity of the battery is
reduced as the constant current draw
is increased.
From: http://www.maxim-ic.com/appnotes/index.mvp/id/3958
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Depth of Discharge: The amount of energy that has been
removed from a battery (or battery pack).
o Usually expressed as a percentage of the total capacity of
the battery. For example, 50% depth of discharge means
that half of the energy in the battery has been used.
o Some batteries, such as car batteries, are not made to be
discharged very much before they must be recharged.
Others batteries, called deep-cycle batteries, can be
drained deeply without being damaged. These batteries
are more appropriate for underwater vehicle applications
where energy is needed throughout the mission and
recharging occurs after the mission is completed.
Maximum Charge Rate: Refer to the textbook.
Temperature Performance: Be aware that battery performance
typically drops as the temperature decreases.
Size and Shape: Refer to the textbook.
Shelf Life: Refer to the textbook.
Required Maintenance: Refer to the textbook.
Ease of Acquisition and Disposal: Refer to the textbook.
Price: Refer to the textbook.
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Series and Parallel Battery Combinations:
 You can add to your voltage, energy capacity, or maximum power
output by connecting two or more batteries in series, parallel, or a
combination of series and parallel.
 Case 1, Higher Voltage – Batteries in Series:
Figure 10: Batteries in
Series:
Voltages add, but the
energy capacity and peak
current output remain the
same.
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Case 2, Higher Energy Capacity and Maximum Current Output –
Batteries in Parallel:
Figure 11: Batteries in Parallel:
Voltage remains the same, energy
capacity and peak current outputs
add.
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Case 3, Higher Voltage, Energy Capacity and Maximum Current
Output – Batteries in Combination of Series and Parallel:
Figure 12: Batteries in
Combination:
Voltages add in the series
section, energy capacity
and peak current output
add in the parallel section.
Caution – Keep voltages
below 15 volts around wet
conditions.
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Safety and performance considerations when combining
batteries:
o Minimize the possibility of electrocution by keeping
voltages below 15 volts around wet conditions.
o Fire and explosions are possible with improper battery
combinations. See textbook for an example.
o The main reason to avoid mix batteries is reduced
performance. Current flow through batteries in series is
limited by the weakest cell.
o For peak performance and safety, always use fully charged
batteries of the same size, type, age, voltage, and
manufacturer when connecting batteries in series and
parallel.
Battery Choices:
 Alkaline Cells:
o Readily available worldwide
o Relatively inexpensive
o Good performance
o Available in several standardized sizes, AAA, AA, C, and D
o Voltage from each cell is normally 1.5 volts
o Most are not rechargeable
o Less popular for ROV applications due to high battery
energy draw.
 Sealed Lead-Acid Batteries:
o Use same galvanic chemistry as car batteries
o The electrolytic is non-spillable
o Can be placed in any orientation including upside-down
o Equipped with a valve to relieve internal pressure
especially when recharging
o AGM (Absorbed Glass Mat) batteries are a good choice for
a ROV power source.
 Widely available
 Easily recharged
 Relatively inexpensive
 Nickel Metal Hydride Cells (NiMH) and Nickel-Cadmium Cells (NiCad):
o Voltage from each cell is 1.2 volts
o Nickel metal hydride cells are replacing the nickel-cadmium
cells which have the memory effect problem.
o NiMH batteries cost more than Ni-Cad batteries and have
half the service life.
o NiMH batteries hold 30% more storage and discharge
capacity than Ni-Cad batteries.
o NiMH batteries can be used to supply currents up to 30
amps.
o Ni-Cads provide greater peak power output and a lower
price than NiMHs.
o Also available in several standardized sizes, AAA, AA, C,
and D
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Lithium Batteries:
o Lithium battery technology is under rapid development, so
the information below is subject to change.
o This battery type includes Lithium-ion (Li-ion) and Lithium
polymer (Li-poly).
o Commonly used in laptop computers and cell phones.
o One of the best energy-to-weight ratios of any battery
o No memory effect
o Slow charge loss when stored
o Available in both primary and secondary forms
o Advantages of Lithium polymer over Lithium-ion batteries:
 Less expensive to produce
 Contain higher energy
 Lighter
 More flexible in shape and size
o Current disadvantages of lithium batteries:
 Readily catch fire if damaged, if charged or
discharged incorrectly, or if their inner parts are
exposed to air or water
 Can burn rapidly and violently
 They begin to age as soon as they are
manufactured
 The charge/discharge cycle is lower than NiMH,
non-spillable lead-acid, and Ni-Cad batteries
 Can suddenly fail
 Can absorb oil in oil-filled housings
 Li-poly must never be discharged below a set
voltage to avoid irreversible damage
 Connecting Li-poly in combinations creates a
serious risk for fire
Transmission and Distribution of Electrical Power:
o Major Electrical System Components:
 Source of electrical power
 Fuse or circuit breaker close to the power source
 ON/OFF switch
 Tether – umbilical to deliver electrical power to vehicle
 Load – all of the electrical equipment onboard the vehicle
Figure 13: Major Components of a Vehicle’s Electrical System
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o Wires, Cables, and Connectors:
 Electrical power is conveyed through electrical wires which can be
bundled into cables and joined together with connectors.
 Wire: A usually pliable low-resistance metallic strand often electrically
insulated, used chiefly to conduct electricity.
 Insulator: A material with few or no free electrons which will not let
electrons flow freely. Insulators provide a protective coating around a
conductor.
 Cable: A bound or sheathed group of mutually insulated wires.
 Connector: A device that joins electric conductors mechanically and
electrically to other conductors and to the terminals of apparatus and
equipment. Makers of subsea connectors include SeaCon, Teledyne
Impulse, and Birns.
Figure 14: Wires, Cables, and Connectors
o Fuses: A safety device that protects an electric circuit from becoming
overloaded. Fuses contain a length of thin wire (usually of a metal alloy) that
melts and breaks the circuit if too much current flows through it. They are
used to protect electronic equipment and prevent fires.
Figure 15: “Blade” and “Cartridge” Fuses with Fuse Sockets
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
Short Circuit: A faulty or accidental connection between two points of
different potential in an electric circuit, bypassing the load and
establishing a path of low resistance through which an excessive current
can flow. It can cause damage to the components if the circuit is not
protected by a fuse.
Figure 16: Normal Current through the
Load in an Unprotected Circuit

Figure 17: Excessive Current through a
Short Circuit in an Unprotected Circuit
Protect circuits by placing a fuse as close as possible to the positive
terminal of the power source to minimize the possibility of damage.
Figure 18: Current flows through the
load in a circuit that is protected by a
fuse.
Figure 19: At the instant a short
circuit occurs, the excessive
current flows through the fuse.
Figure 20: The excessive current
melts the fuse wire inside the fuse
housing which opens the current
path, stopping current flow.
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
o
Choosing the Right Fuse:
 First, determine the maximum voltage and current during the
normal operation of your circuit.
 Select a fuse with a voltage rating that is higher than the
maximum operating voltage.
 Picking a fuse with the correct current rating is more crucial.
Choose a fuse that has a current rating between 1.5 to 2.0 times
the normal operating current. Make certain that the wires in your
circuit can withstand this extra current; otherwise they may melt
before the fuse blows.
 Slow-blow type fuses are preferable in motor and relay circuits
which exhibit transitory current spikes.
 Circuit Breakers: A switch that automatically interrupts the flow of
electric current if the current exceeds a preset limit, measured in
amperes. Unlike fuses, they can usually be reset and reused.
 Resettable Fuses: The most obvious difference is that resettable fuses
are automatically resettable whereas traditional fuses need to be
replaced after they are tripped.
 When the conductive plastic material in a resettable fuse is at
normal room temperature, there are numerous carbon chains
forming conductive paths through the material. Under fault
conditions, excessive current flows through the resettable fuse
device. Heating causes the conductive plastic material's
temperature to rise. As this self heating continues, the material's
temperature continues to rise until it exceeds its phase
transformation temperature. As the material passes through this
phase transformation temperature, the densely packed crystalline
polymer matrix changes to an amorphous structure. This phase
change is accompanied by a small expansion. As the conductive
particles move apart from each other, most of them no longer
conduct current and the resistance of the device increases
sharply. The material will stay "hot", remaining in this high
resistance state as long as the power is applied. The device will
remain latched, providing continuous protection, until the fault is
cleared and the power is removed. Reversing the phase
transformation allows the carbon chains to re-form as the polymer
re-crystallizes. The resistance quickly returns to its original value.
From:
http://www.schurter.com/en/content/download/8672/115155/file/K
apKat_PG01_1.pdf
 Resettable fuses are convenient on deep-diving ROVs and AUVs
because of reset feature.
Power Switches:
 Locate master switch between the fuse and the remaining circuitry.
 Switches will be discussed in more detail in the next chapter.
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o Transmitting Electrical Power over a Tether:
 Voltage Drop - a decrease in voltage around a circuit through which
current is flowing. For example, in Figure 21, the battery supplies an
electrical potential of 10 volts. The voltmeter reading across the battery
(from Point A to Point D) is 10 volts, VA = 10 V. As the 10 mA current
passes through the resistor R1, the voltage drops 2 volts (V1 = I1*R1; 2 V
= 0.01 A * 200 ). The voltage at Point B (VB = 8 V) has dropped 2 volts
from Point A (VA = 10V). Since the current is equal through all of the
resistors, the voltage drops an additional 3 volts across resistor R2 and 5
volts across R3. If you measure the voltage at Point D (VD = 0 V), you
will observe that the voltage has dropped a total of 10 volts across the
three resistors.
Figure 21: Voltage Drops in a Series Circuit
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Although wires are considered conductors, every wire has an internal
resistance. With this resistance, there is an associated power loss and
voltage drop. So the voltage at the end of a tether is less than the
voltage at power source. For example in Figures 22 and 23, a 60 foot
long #22 gauge wire tether has an internal resistance of 0.0161 /ft.
The internal resistance produces a 5.8 V voltage drop across the tether,
leaving 6.2 volts for the ROV.
Figure 22: Voltage Drop in a 60’ #22 Wire Tether
Figure 23: Schematic of Voltage Drops in 60’ #22 Wire Tether
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Options to reduce power loss in a tether:
 Shorten the tether
 Choose a larger gauge wire to reduce the internal resistance
 Increase the voltage
 Place the battery on board the vehicle
o Accommodating Multiple Voltages:
 Your ROV may have subsystems that require different operating
voltages. In Figure 24, for example, the thrusters and cameras operate
at +12 volts while the microcontroller and compass circuits run on +5
volts.
Figure 24: ROV Subsystems Requiring Different Voltages
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Fixed Output Linear Voltage Regulators: a device that provides a
constant regulated output voltage (a constant voltage despite variations
in input voltage or output load) as long as the input voltage is greater
than the rated output voltage plus the dropout voltage. Typically, voltage
regulators are surrounded by heat sinks because they generate
significant heat. The unnecessary voltage is disposed by the heat.
Check your voltage regulator datasheet for the connection diagram and
typical applications.
Figure 25: Fixed Output Voltage Regulator Schematic and a 7805 Voltage Regulator in
a TO-220 Package
Links to two 7805 datasheets:
http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/lm340-n.pdf
http://www.fairchildsemi.com/ds/LM/LM7805.pdf
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Figure 26: A 7805 Fixed Output Voltage Regulator Circuit on a Solderless Breadboard
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All linear regulators require an input voltage at least some minimum
amount higher than the rated output voltage. That minimum amount is
called the dropout voltage. For example, a common regulator such as
the 7805 has an output voltage of 5V, but can only maintain this if the
input voltage remains above about 7V. Its dropout voltage is therefore
7V - 5V = 2V.
 DC-to-DC Converters: DC converters convert power from one DC
voltage source to another DC voltage, although sometimes the output is
the same voltage. They are usually regulated devices, taking a possibly
varying input voltage, and providing a stable, regulated output voltage,
up to a design current limit.
Steps in Circuit Design and Construction:
o Circuit Design:
 Formulate your circuit design on paper or other medium before you
begin fabrication. Use standardized circuit schematic symbols so others
can understand your design. Standard symbols can be found at:
 http://library.thinkquest.org/10784/circuit_symbols.html
 http://encyclobeamia.solarbotics.net/articles/symbols.html
 http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/symbol.htm
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o Circuit Prototyping:
 Test your design by fabricating a temporary prototype circuit.
 Breadboarding: an experimental arrangement of electronic circuits giving
access to components so that modifications can be carried out easily.
 Breadboarding can be arranging larger circuit components on a
piece of plywood and connecting them using alligator clip leads.
 Circuits with smaller circuit components tested using a solderless
breadboard. The components are plugged into contact points on
the breadboard, allowing for simple modification if needed. For a
more detailed session on solderless breadboards, see:
http://cornerstonerobotics.org/curriculum/lessons_year1/ER%20W
eek3,%20Solderless%20Breadboard.pdf
Figure 27: Solderless Breadboard Set-up with +9V Supply Bus
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Remember to update your schematic after making corrections to the
prototype circuit.
o Robust Circuit Construction; Your Final Circuit:
 Now that your prototype circuit has tested successfully, you must
construct the final assembly so the electrical connections and
components stay intact in spite of immersion, bumps, vibrations, and
strain.
 Securely anchor all components, wires, and connections to the chassis
box or waterproof canister.
 Keep crucial parts accessible for repair or replacement.
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Some Wire Connections Options:
Figure 28: Terminal Strip with Jumpers
Figure 30: Eurostyle Terminal Strip
Figure 32: PCB Terminal Blocks
Figure 34: Ribbon Wire Connector
Figure 36: Printed Circuit Board
Figure 29: Marine Busbars
Figure 31: Crimp-On Terminals
Figure 33: Splice Connector
Figure 35: Perforated Circuit Board
Figure 37: Waterproof Housing
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