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THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION (1543-1800)
FOCUS QUESTIONS
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What developments during the Middle Ages & the Renaissance contributed to the Scientific Revolution?
What did Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo & Newton contribute to a new vision of the universe?
What did Paracelsus, Vesalius & Harvey contribute to a scientific view of medicine?
What role did women play in the Scientific Revolution?
Why is Descartes considered the “founder of modern rationalism”?
How were the ideas of the Scientific Revolution spread & what impact did they have on society & religion?
BACKGROUND
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By the Middle Ages-----500-1500 (_______________) many educated Europeans took an intense interest in
the world around them since it was “God’s handiwork” & therefore an appropriate subject for study
Late medieval (800-1500) scholastic _______________ had advanced math & physical thinking but their
reliance on ancient authorities (_______________---philosopher & _______________---Greek physician &
surgeon) limited how far they could go
These “medieval scientists” (natural philosophers) preferred refined logical analysis to systematic
_______________ of the natural world
Changes & _______________ in the 15th & 16th centuries played a major role in helping to abandon their old
views & develop new ones
o The _______________ inspired spirit & curiosity in many fields, scholars began to question ideas
that had been accepted for 100’s of years & the _______________ prompted followers to challenge
accepted ways of thinking about God & salvation
Another revolution began that would change how people viewed the _______________ world
Scientific Revolution
 A new way of thinking about the _______________ world based on the careful _______________ & the
willingness to question accepted beliefs
 Leading to the _______________ Revolution
o During the Renaissance when people _______________ to other countries (Africa, Asia, Americas),
they learned about new animals and people that made them question the possibility of new _________
o The invention of the _______________ press helped to spread challenging ideas
o As scientists began to observe the world around them they found new truths that did not match
_______________ thinking
Technological Innovation & Mathematics
 Unquestioned _______________ (Aristotle, Galen, Plato & Archimedes) were now contradicted by other
thinkers b/c the desire to discover which school of though was correct stimulated new scientific work that
sometimes led to complete _______________ of classical authorities
 Technical problems such as _______________ the tonnage of ships accurately also stimulated scientific
activity (careful observation & accurate measurements)
 Many books were around that were dedicated to _______________ & technology in the 15th & 16th centuries
 _______________ was promoted in the Renaissance by the rediscovery of the works of _______________
(math was important to explain the universe)
o Math was seen as the key to _______________, military science & _______________ but more
importantly it was seen as the key to understanding the _______________ of things
TOWARD A NEW HEAVEN
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The greatest achievements in the S.R. came in the fields of ____________, mechanics & _____________
(dominated by Greek ideas)
Copernicus (1473-1543)
 An early challenge to accepted scientific thinking came in the field of astronomy as a small group of scholars
began to question the _______________ theory
o Geocentric theory was a theory created by an ancient Greek “_______________” who believed that
the earth was the center of the universe & everything revolved around it (Geocentric Theory)
o The problem was that it did not accurately explain the _______________ of the sun, moon, & planets
 Nicolaus _______________, a Polish astronomer, studied planetary movement & was troubled by the theory
o He believed the universe consisted of 8 spheres with the sun motionless at the center & the sphere of
the fixed stars at rest in the 8th sphere & the moon revolving around the _______________
o He also though the _______________ of the sun & fixed stars around the earth was really explained
by the daily rotation of the earth on its axis & the journey of the earth around the sun each year
 His theory was called the “_______________ Theory” basically explained that the _________ was the
center of the universe & that the stars, earth, & other planets revolved around it
 “_______________” reformers rejected his theory---even “_______________”
o “the new astrologer who wants to prove that the earth moves & goes round……The fool wants to turn
the whole art of _______________ upside down. As Holy Scripture tells us, so did Joshua bid the
sun stand still & not the earth”
 He knew that the _______________ leaders would reject his theory because it did not follow religious
beliefs not to mention that during most of the 16th & 17th centuries, fear of heretics spreading teachings &
opinions that contradicted the ___________ dominated the _______________ Church
o The Catholic Church _______________ scientists who formed theories the Church deemed heretical
& forbade people from reading any books on those subjects by placing the books on the Index of
_______________ Books
 However in 1543, Copernicus _______________ his book “On the Revolutions of Heavenly Bodies” that
explained his theory
o The C.C. remained silent after _______________ him & his published book & did not denounce
Copernicus until the work of Galileo appeared---it started a wave of astronomers who became
attracted to his __________
 The Church disapproved of this theory because the Holy _______________ state that the Earth is at the
center, not the Sun but Copernicus died shortly after publishing his book & according to the C.C. the contents
of the Bible were taken literally, the publishing of these books proved, to the Church, that Copernicus &
Galileo were _______________ b/c they preached, through their writing that the Bible was ___________
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
 Italian Scientist who built his own _______________ & used it to study the planets in 1609
 1610, he published “Starry Messenger” a book that explained that Jupiter had four moons & that the sun had
dark spots & the earth’s moon had a rough uneven surface with _______________ & _______________
o This book supported Copernicus’s _______________ which of course the C.C. did not like
 _______________ findings threatened both Catholic & Protestant leaders b/c they went directly against
church teachings (Aristotle’s theory that the moon & stars were made of a pure & perfect substance)
o If the church could be wrong about this then people could _______________ other church teachings
 The C.C. warned him not to defend Copernicus’s ideas but he published “Dialog Concerning the Two Chief
World Systems”, in which he presented the ideas of _______________ & _______________ but he
clearly supported Copernicus
 He was summoned to ____________, tried by the “_______________” tortured until he signed a document
that said Copernicus’s ideas were false & then spend the rest of his life on house arrest
o Inquisition was the _____________ of the Roman Catholic Church whose aim was to combat heresy
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
 Danish astronomer, carefully recorded the _______________ of the planets & produced enormous amounts
of ___________ before his death
 As an astronomer he combined & developed “_______________ System”
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He retained from the ancient the idea of _____________ as a fixed center of the universe around
which the Sun & Moon revolved, but he held that as in the newer system of Copernicus, all other
______________ revolved around the Sun
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
 Brahe’s assistant & a brilliant mathematician concluded that certain mathematical _____________ govern
planetary movement; the planets orbit the sun in an _______________ (oval instead of circle) fashion &
demonstrated mathematically how the planets moved
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Kepler's laws of planetary motion are 3 scientific laws describing the motion of planets around the ______
1. The orbit of a planet is an “_______________” (curve on a plane)
2. A line segment joining a planet & the ___________ sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time
3. The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the _______________ axis of
its orbit
Isaac Newton (1642-1726)
 English scientist who made a theory about motion “Law of _______________”
 He was certain that all _______________ objects were affected equally by the same forces
o He discovered that the same force ruled motion of the planets & all matter on earth
_______________ & in space
 Law of _______________ Gravitation stated that every object in the universe attracts every other object
 1687, he published “The Mathematical Principles of Natural _______________”
o He described the universe as a giant clock with all of its parts working perfectly in ways that could be
expressed mathematically, with God as the great clockmaker, putting everything in motion---God was
“_______________ present”
ADVANCES IN MEDICINE & CHEMISTRY
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Although the S.R. of the 16th & 17th centuries is associatd primarily with the dramatic changes in astronomy &
mechanics a new 3rd field of _______________ also experienced a _______________
Late medieval medicine was dominated by the teachings of the Greek physician “_______________” who lived
in the 2nd century
Galen’s influence on the medieval world was in _______________, physiology & _______________
o He relied on animal rather than human _______________ to arrive at a picture of human anatomy
that was sometimes very _______________
o In the latter Middle Ages human dissection was around but _______________ still relied on Galen
“_______________” (functioning of the body) was also dominated by Galenic hypotheses (belief that there
were 2 separate blood systems)
o One controlled _______________ activities & contained bright red blood moving upward & downward
through the arteries
o The other governed the _______________ functions & contained dark red blood that flowed in the
veins
Paracelsus (1493-1541)
 He was a Swiss alchemist, physician, astrologer & philosopher & during his travels in Egypt, Arabia & the Holy
Land, he observed the methods of _______________, chemists & spiritual healers there & applied this
experience to his own _______________
 He _______________ the theories of Galen, which had been the foundation for European medicine during
the Middle Ages,
o Paracelsus taught instead that _______________ depended on the _______________ between
man & nature & on the balances of certain chemicals within the body
o He regarded Nature as the One, a living organism & believed in the _______________ healing power
present in Nature & the human body
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He pioneered the use of _______________ in medicine, developed the use of mercury to cure syphilis,
recognized the role of minerals in certain illnesses, coined the word “alcohol” & named the element zinc
Paracelsus believed that a _______________ should proceed from the cause to the effect, instead of
beginning a diagnosis with the body itself
o "The physician should proceed from _______________ things, not from man"---He believed in
treating the cause of the disease rather than just the _______________
He believed the practice of medicine should be based on ______________, observation & ______________
o Was the first to record that inhaled dust, rather than subterranean spirits, was the cause of lung
disease in _______________
He identified certain diseases as being caused by __________ elements ingested or inhaled into the patient’s
body, a concept that later led to the discovery of bacteria & _______________ as the cause of disease
In medieval Europe, the _______________ were thought to be possessed by demonic spirits; Paracelsus
regarded insanity as an _______________ & urged that insane persons be treated with kindness
o He also taught that a person’s state of __________ had a powerful effect on their physical body, and
that many symptoms & diseases had _______________ l causes
Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)
 He was a Renaissance physician who _______________ the study of _______________ & the practice of
medicine by his careful description of the anatomy of the human body
 He based his observations on dissections he made himself, he wrote & _______________ the first
comprehensive textbook of anatomy
o Vesalius’ work represented the culmination of the humanistic revival of ancient learning, the
introduction of human dissections into medical curricula & the growth of a European ______________
literature
o After Vesalius, anatomy became a scientific _______________, with far-reaching implications not
only for physiology but for all of biology
William Harvey (1578-1657)
 An English physician & natural historian who is most well-known for making clear the circulation of _________
 Harvey also made discoveries in areas of comparative anatomy & physiology, pioneering modern embryology &
has been called the "______________ of modern physiology," & the "founder of modern _____________
physiology" (because his work was based on experiments on animals)
 Harvey's groundbreaking work on blood _______________ overturned centuries of inaccurate speculation in
the Western world
 Among his observations:
o Recognized the continuous flow of blood in the body; the movement of blood from the __________ to
_________ ventricle through the lungs via the pulmonary artery & pulmonary vein
o Recognized the role of the left ventricle in pumping _________ throughout the entire body
o Noted the fact that arteries carried blood always away from the _______________
o Noted the role of the venous __________ in assuring blood in veins always flowed toward the heart
Robert Boyle & chemistry (1627-1691)
 He proposed that _______________ was made up of smaller primary particles that joined together in
different ways
 “_______________ Law” explains how the volume, temperature & pressure of gas affect each other
o The volume of a _______________ varies with the _______________ exerted on it
WOMEN IN THE ORIGINS OF MODERN SCIENCE
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During the Middle Ages, except for members of religious orders, _______________ who sought a life of
learning were severely hampered by the _______________ attitude that a woman’s proper role was as a
daughter, wife & mother
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In the late 14th & early 15th centuries, new opportunities for elite women emerged as enthusiasm for the new
secular learning called _______________ encouraged Europe’s privileged & learned men to encourage women
to read & study classical & _______________ texts
o Humanism emphasizes the study of the whole person where psychologists look at human ___________
not only through the eyes of the observer but through the eyes of the person doing the behaving
o The system of thought attaches prime importance to human rather than divine or _______________
matters
o Humanist beliefs stress the potential value & _______________ of human beings, emphasize common
human needs & seek solely rational ways of solving human _______________
Margaret Cavendish (1623-1673)
 She was a philosopher, poet, scientist, fiction-writer & playwright who participated in the crucial scientific
_______________ of her time & published 6 books on _______________
o Her work lays out an early & very compelling version of the _______________ that is found in
current-day philosophy & science & offers important insights that bear on recent discussions of the
nature & characteristics of _______________ & the question of whether or not the bodies that
surround us are _______________ or have an intelligent cause
Maria
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Merian (1647-1717)
An important “_______________” (zoologist who focuses specifically on the study of insects)
She had no formal training but she learned the art of _______________ in her fathers workshop
In 1699 she went on an expedition in _______________ (Dutch colony) in South America to collect & draw
samples of plants & insect life
o Her scientific work “Metamorphosis of the Insects of Surinam” used 60 _______________ to show
the reproductive & _______________ l cycles of Surinam’s insect life
Maria Winkelmann (1670-1720)
 She was a female German _______________ who was educated by her father & uncle & believed that she
deserved the _______________ education bestowed upon boys
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She later married Gottfried Kirch who was Germany’s foremost astronomer & was seen as his
_______________ rather than an equal member of the team at the astronomical observatory operated in
Berlin by the Academy of _______________
o They worked together on _______________ & _______________, as well as weather observations,
to produce calendars, ephemeredes & almanacs that were used for _______________
 1702 Maria discovered her own _______________ (C/1702H1) and in doing so became the first woman to
make such a discovery but her husband took the credit
o With no university degree she faced difficulty being _______________ by the scientific community
Debates On The Nature Of Women
 The nature & value of _______________ had been the subject of an ongoing, centuries-long debate known
as the “querelles des _______________” (arguments about women)
 Women were portrayed as inherently base, prone to vice, easily swayed & sexually insatiable therefore men
needed to _______________ them
o Permanently low, prone to _______________ behavior, easily influenced & sexually desirable
 Women argued against the male images of them saying that women had rational _______________ & could
grow from formal _______________
 The impact of the S.R. caused traditional crafts to be upgraded & then professionalized as males took over
 Overall the S.R. reaffirmed traditional ideas about women as male scientists used the new science to spread
the view that women were _______________ by nature, _______________ to men & suited by nature to
play a domestic role as nurturing _______________
TOWARD A NEW EARTH
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Rene
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The fundamentally new conception of the _______________ contained in the cosmological revolution of the
16th & 17th centuries had an impact on the western view of _______________
Descartes (1596-1650)
He began by reflecting the doubt & uncertainty that seemed “_______________” (spread widely) in the
confusion of the 17th century & ended with a philosophy that dominated Western thought until the 20th
century
He joined the _______________ (30 Years War) not to fight but to travel & think & during that campaign
he outlined a new rational-mathematical system & for the rest of his life he worked out his ___________
o Basically he developed “analytical geometry” which linked _______________ to _______________
He believed that everything should be doubted until proven by reason (Father of Modern _______________)
o Using mind or human __________ was the best path to certain knowledge & its best instrument
“_________” allows humans to understand the material world b/c it is pure mechanism governed by
physical laws & not God
His books were placed on the papal Index of _______________ Books & condemned by many Protestant
_______________
Other Scientists
 Zacharias _______________ was Dutch man who invented the first microscope
 Anton van Leewenhoek was a Dutch man who used the _______________ to examine bacteria in tooth
scrapings & observe red blood cells for the first time
 Evangelista Torricelli developed the first mercury _______________, a tool for measuring atmospheric
pressure & predicting weather
 Gabriel _______________ made the first thermometer made with mercury in glass which shows freezing
water at 32 degrees
 Andres _______________ created another scale for the mercury _______________ that showed
freezing at 0 degrees
 Edward Jenner introduced a vaccine to prevent _______________
o He used cowpox virus to inoculate people from the _______________
THE SCIENTIFC METHOD & THE SPREAD OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
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During the 17th century, scientific learning & _______________ began to increase as major universities in
Europe established new chairs of science & _______________
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
 An English statesmen & writer who believed that by better understanding the world, scientists would generate
_______________ knowledge that would _______________ people’s lives
 He was “_______________” in thought so he believed instead of reasoning from abstract theories it was
best to experiment & then draw conclusions (father of Empiricism)
o Empiricism is a theory that states that _______________ comes only or primarily from sensory
_______________
 He built a new foundation of science inquiry based on inductive _______________
 Sir Isaac _______________ synthesized Bacon’s “Empiricism” with Decartes’s “_______________” into a
single methodology that is presently called the “_______________ Method”
Scientific Method
 A new approach to science, it is a logical method for gathering & testing ideas (________ steps)
o A problem or question is made from _______________
o A _______________ is made, an unproved assumption
o The hypothesis is tested in an _______________ & data is gathered
o Data is then analyzed and interpreted to reach a _______________
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The conclusion either agrees or _______________ the hypothesis
The Spread Of Scientific Knowledge
 Also important to the work of science was the emergence of new learned societies & _______________ that
enabled the new scientists to _______________ their ideas to each other & to disseminate them to a wider,
literate public
 The _______________ Royal Society evolved out of informal gatherings of scientists at London & Oxford in
the 1640’s
 The _______________ Royal Academy of Scientists also rose out of informal scientific meetings in Paris
during the 1650’s
o Both formally emphasized the practical value of scientific _______________ & though science
should proceed as a _______________ venture
 Scientific journals furthered this concept of _______________ & printed results of experiments as well as
general scientific _______________ that appealed to both scientists & the educated public interested in
the new science
Science & Religion
 In Galileo’s struggle with the inquisitorial Holy Office of the Catholic Church, we see the beginning of the
__________ b/w science & religion that has marked the history of modern _______________ Civilization
 To Galileo it made little sense for the ___________ to determine the nature of physical reality on the basis
of _______________ texts that were subject to radically divergent interpretations
Blaise
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Pascal (1623-1662)
A French scientist & brilliant mathematician who sought to keep science & _______________ united
He planned to write an “_______________ for the Christian religion” but died before he could do so
He did leave a set of notes “Pensees” (_______________)
o He tried to _______________ rationalists to Christianity by appealing to both their reason & their
emotions
o He argued that humans were frail _______________, often deceived by their senses, misled by
reason & blattered by their _______________
 He obviously failed in his attempt to unite Christianity & _______________ as more & more of the
intellectual, social & political elites began to act on the basis of “_______________” rather than
“_______________” assumptions
o Non-religious basis vs. religious basis
 The Scientific Revolution gave way to a period of time called the “_______________” or the “Age of Reason”
The Power of Reason
 By the end of the Scientific Revolution, one thing had become clear to many European _______________:
human reason, or _______________ thought, was a powerful tool as scientists using reason had made many
discoveries about the universe in a relatively short time
 Since reason had proven itself as a way to learn some of nature’s great secrets, might reason also be used to
solve the _______________ facing people?
o Philosophers decided to use reason when they considered society’s problems like poverty & war, or
what type of _______________ is best
 This use of reason to consider the problems of society led philosophers to look at the world in a new way as
they could use reason to determine how to _______________ society
Democratic Ideas
 One way in which scientists thought they could improve society was by changing its _______________
 Scientists’ use of reason & logic during the Scientific Revolution helped pave the way for the beginnings of
_______________ thought in Europe
o As scientists like Sir Isaac Newton studied the world, they discovered laws that governed _________
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In time, some scientists began to think that there must be laws that governed human _______________ as
well
Once people learned what these laws were, the scientists argued, they could improve their lives & their
_______________
But the idea that people’s lives were _______________ by laws had a deeper meaning as well
o If all people were governed by the same laws, then it stood to reason that all people must be
____________
o This idea of the equality of all people was a _______________ step in the development of democratic
ideas in Europe