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Comparative Morphosyntax I Table of Contents Lesson 1. What's Morphosyntax? 1 Morphology 1 Task 1. 2 Kinds of morphemes 2 Derivation and Inflection 2 Task 2 4 Ambiguity 4 Task 3. 5 Word Formation Processes 5 Task 4. 5 Compounding: 5 Task 5. 6 Reduplication: 6 Task 6. 6 Morpheme-Internal Changes 6 Task 7 6 Suppletion 7 Task 8 7 Blending 7 Task 9 7 Types of Languages 7 Analytic languages 7 Synthetic languages (3 flavours) 8 Task 10 8 Task 11 8 Final Odds and Ends 8 Task 12 9 Syntax 9 What's Syntax? 9 Prescriptive Grammar 10 Generative Grammar 10 Comprehension Questions 10 Practice Quiz 11 Lesson 2. Grammar 13 What is Grammar? 13 Lesson 3. Verb Patterns in English 16 Pattern 1 16 Pattern 2 16 Pattern 3 16 Pattern 4 17 Exercise 17 Pattern 5. Extraposition 18 Pattern 6. Cleft Sentences 19 Practice Quiz 19 Lesson 4. Basic Sentence Patterns in Spanish 21 Pattern #1 21 Pattern #2 21 Pattern #3 21 Pattern #4 21 Pattern #5 22 Pattern #6 23 Revision. 23 Word Classes and Morphological Characteristics 26 Lesson 5. Nouns and Adjectives 26 Nouns 26 Spanish 26 English 26 Adjectives 27 Homework 27 Possessive adjectives 27 Lesson 6. Pronouns and Verbs 28 Pronouns 28 Other Types of Pronoun 28 Numerals 30 Verbs 30 Derivational Analysis 30 Enclisis. 31 Compounding. 31 Lesson 7. The Noun Phrase and its Constituents 34 I. Determiners 34 Definite Articles 34 Indefinite Articles 34 English 34 II. Demonstratives 36 III. Possessives 37 Lesson 8. Mass nouns and Count nouns 38 Exercise 38 Practice Quiz 40 Process Assignment Progress 42 Index 43 Sources 43 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Lesson 1. What's Morphosyntax? This lesson revises some main points of what you have been studying concerning Morphology and Syntax in Linguistics I & II Morphology Morphology is the study of the structure of words. Paradoxically, however, the concept of word itself defies simple definition. In English, for example, words tend to be smaller than the sentence, and we combine words to form sentences. One tricky thing, however, is that in many languages, a single word can have "sentence" meaning. Here's an example from Spanish: házmelo. This "word" is actually a command that is best translated as "do it for me" (do (haz) it (lo) for me (me)). In Swahili, the word atakusumbua means "s/he will annoy you." Nevertheless, if we take English as an example, we have a clear sense that sentences can be broken down into smaller units (words), each of which generally contributes to the meaning of the whole. For example: Pigs like mud is a sentence containing three words (pigs, like, mud). If we focus on the word pigs for a second, we notice something interesting. Pigs itself can actually be decomposed into two parts that are easy to grasp intuitively. Specifically, pigs consists of pig + s. So, we have a noun "pig", which lets us know we are in the presence of, well, "pigness" and an additional element "-s" which attaches to the noun and lets us know that we are dealing with not one pig, but rather, with more than a single pig. By contrast, the word "mud" can't be broken down in the same way. Of course, we can break it down into three "sounds" [m + u + d]. (Actually the [u] is a vowel called caret but we'll ignore this detail for now.) But these three sounds don't each contribute a meaning to the whole word. In pigs, however, the two parts [pig] and [s] DO each contribute a meaning. The former tells us about the type of thing that we are referring to in the world, and the latter contributes information about number. Each of these two pieces [pig] and [-s] is called a morpheme, and, for our purposes here, we can define morphemes as the smallest meaningful unit within the word. Thus, a word like [mud] consists of a single morpheme, while [pigs] has two morphemes. The word [unbelievable] has three morphemes, while the word unidirectionality has four! Summing up the basics Morphology is the study of word structure and word formation. Words, though impossible to define in absolute terms, can be thought of as the units that are combined to form sentences in a language such as English. Just as sentences can be broken down into smaller units (words), we can break words down into smaller, meaningful parts. The smallest meaningful part of a word is called a morpheme. Note: not all words have more than one morpheme. Words that have only one morpheme are also called monomorphemic words (e.g. pig). Words with more than one morpheme are called polymorphemic words, as in foolishness (fool + ish + ness). 1 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Task 1. Provide examples of 5 monomorphemic words in English and 5 in Spanish. Do the same with polymorphemic words Spanish English 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Kinds of morphemes What kinds of morphemes are there in the world? Glad you asked! Let's consider another example: governments. First, we can agree (I hope) that governments is comprised of three morphemes: govern -ment -s How are these three parts different from one another? Note that govern is the kind of morpheme that can also stand on its own, as in the sentence, "Some people think it is a good idea to govern with an iron fist". Morphemes that can stand on their own are called free morphemes. The other two morphemes, [-ment] and [-s], can't stand on their own. Rather, they have to be attached, i.e. they have to make up part of a larger word. Morphemes that cannot stand on their own are called bound morphemes. Important distinction Free morphemes can stand alone, while bound morphemes cannot. More important distinctions There's even more exciting news on the morpheme front. Let's focus more closely on the two bound morphemes [-ment] and [-s] in the word [govern-ment-s]. Intuitively, we can sense that there's a difference between them. While [-ment] is added to the verb "govern" to give us a new word, the noun "government", [-s] simply makes the noun plural. It doesn't change the part of speech and create a brand new word in the same way that adding [-ment] to [govern] did. The difference is that [-ment] is a derivational suffix, while plural [-s] is an inflectional suffix. Derivation and Inflection Affixes come in two flavours: derivational affixes and inflectional affixes. Here we'll review the TESTS we can use to determine whether an affix belongs to one category or the other. Derivation: there's a good chance an affix is derivational if 2 Lic. Christian Cristóful © it changes the part of speech of the word that it is added to. So, the [-ment] suffix changes verbs to nouns, as in [govern + ment]. The [-able] suffix changes transitive verbs like "read" and "write" into adjectives, as in [read + able], etc. This is a very reliable test. If an affix changes the part of speech, it IS derivational. it is not required by the syntax. This test can be confusing at first. What we mean is that we don't need to add, say, the derivational prefix [un-] to the adjective [kind] in order to agree with the noun that [unkind] modifies. Contrast this, for example, with the [-s] ending that we put on the end of the verb in the third person singular, as in "John walk-s a lot." That [-s] is merely there to agree with the subject of the sentence, "John". That is, it's there because the syntax requires it. So, [un-] is derivational, but [-s] is inflectional. Again, this is a reliable test. it is not very productive. Productivity is another confusing point. A rule of thumb is that derivational affixes are less productive than inflectional ones. But what does productive mean? Let's look at a concrete example. With the exception of a very reduced set of nouns (child, ox, mouse, deer and a handful of others), the plural suffix [-s] can be freely added to any old noun. So, grab a noun, stick [-s] on the end, and voila, you've got yourself a well-formed plural noun. This is an example of productivity. The plural is productive because it can be added basically across the board to any noun. By contrast, think about the [-hood] suffix in English. It also adds to nouns, in this case to make a new noun, as in [sister-hood]. But can we add it freely across the board? I don't think so. Try adding it to "desk". Do you think [deskhood] sounds really well formed? How about [rockhood] or [concepthood] or [emotionhood]? So, [-hood] can actually only be added to a very reduced set of nouns, not simply to any noun the way that [-s] can. Therefore, we can say that [-hood] is not very productive. (Note, productivity is a gradient or scalar thing. Some derivational affixes are more productive than others. The suffix [-able], for example, is more productive than [-hood]. But, the generalization is still useful. Derivational affixes tend to be less productive than inflectional affixes. This test is useful, but since "productive" is a fuzzy concept, you have to walk with care. it appears "before" an inflectional affix (in general). This is just a way of saying that "inflectional" affixes are the last things we add, after we've built the main word up. So, if we have [govern + ment + s], we see that [-ment] is inside of the inflectional [-s]. Be careful, though, because we might have two derivational affixes in a word, as in [humid -ify -er -s] "humidifiers". Don't assume that [-er] is inflectional simply because [-ify] appears before it. Both [-ify] and [-er] are derivational, while our friend [-s], of course, is inflectional. This is a handy rule of thumb, but, as I note, you've got to be careful. (Note: derivational affixes can be either prefixes or suffixes in ENGLISH. So, [un-] is a derivational prefix, while [-ment] is a derivational suffix.) Inflection: an affix may be inflectional if it doesn't change the part of speech to the base that it's added to. So, if we add [-s] to the noun [cat], we've still got a [cats]. BE CAREFUL WITH THIS TEST. Why? Some derivational affixes don't change the part of speech. [-hood] is added to nouns to create new nouns. [re-] is a prefix that can be added to verbs to create new verbs. it is required by the syntax. See the comments immediately above. The third singular [-s] suffix of [run-s] will "agree" with the subject of a sentence like "Mary run-s quickly." The basic insight here is that inflectional has to do with relations between words, i.e. with information that is important to the syntax of the sentence. it is very productive. Think plural [-s] as a stellar example. occurs generally at the margin (outside edge) of a word. This goes back to our generalization that derivation tends to come inside of inflection. 3 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Task 2 Provide examples of 5 English words and 5 Spanish ones. Analyse their morphemes and say if the individual morphemes are bound or free. Besides, state if the morphemes are inflectional and derivational. 1. ____________________________________________________________________ 2. ____________________________________________________________________ 3. ____________________________________________________________________ 4. ____________________________________________________________________ 5. ____________________________________________________________________ 6. ____________________________________________________________________ 7. ____________________________________________________________________ 8. ____________________________________________________________________ 9. ____________________________________________________________________ 10. ____________________________________________________________________ Like sentences, words have internal structure! How do we know this. Imagine a tree diagram for the word [un-use-able]. Note that this tree has hierarchical structure much in the same way that a syntax tree does. The root of the tree in this case is an Adjective node, indicating the part of speech of the whole word "unusable". What we see is that this root dominates a prefix [un-] and another Adjective node. This means that the word was formed by adding [un-] to the already morphologically complex word [use + able]. For its part, [use + able] consists of a verb root [use] and the adjective forming suffix [-able]. That is, we can see that the word is built up this way in our lexicon (the formal term for our mental dictionary which contains morphemes and the rules for their combination): 1) add -able to the root use to form [use[able] ] 2) add un- to the stem [use[able]] to form [un[use[able]]] How do we know that this is the structure of this word? How do we know that [-un] isn't first added to the verb and that we don't then add [-able]. Simple. We CAN'T add [un-] to the verb [use] because [unuse] is NOT A POSSIBLE VERB. (See how our derivational prefix isn't completely productive.) We can, however, add [un-] to the adjective [useable]. So by this reasoning, we can build up the adjective first and then add [un-]. Ambiguity More evidence for internal structure Ambiguity gives us more evidence in favour of viewing words as having internal structure. Consider the following word: un-lock-able This word is ambiguous because it has two clear readings. It can mean "able to be 4 Lic. Christian Cristóful © unlocked" or "not able to be locked". Importantly, we can use a tree structure to disambiguate them, i.e. to reflect their different meanings by accurately representing the different internal structure of the word, depending on which meaning we want to characterize. Task 3. Provide an ambiguous sentence in English and one in Spanish. In each case, explain the ambiguity of at least two senses. English: 1. ________________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________________ Spanish 1. ________________________________________________________ 2. ________________________________________________________ Word Formation Processes How are words created? We've talked about how words can be broken down into morphemes, talked about types of morphemes, and talked about how words, like sentences, have internal structure. Now, we need to address the processes that we use to build up morphologically complex words. That's what we'll review here. A list of terms to know: Affixation: a way of building up words by adding prefixes, suffixes, infixes, or a combination of these. Example: [cat-s] is formed by affixation. In particular, by the suffixation of the plural morpheme [-s]. Task 4. Research on the existing 4 kinds of affixation. Provide examples of each Affix name Definition Example Prefix Affix that is attached to the beginning of a morpheme Im possible Compounding: a way of building up words by combining two words. Examples: [blackbird], [air conditioner]. Note that compounding has its own special stress pattern. So, the words [WHITE HOUSE] are a noun phrase in which "white" describes "house", while [WHITE house], with more stress on [WHITE] is a compound. Note also that while [air conditioner] is a compound, the word [conditioner] is itself built up by affixation! 5 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Task 5. Provide 2 compound words in English and 2 in Spanish 1. ______________________________________________________ 2. ______________________________________________________ 3. ______________________________________________________ 4. ______________________________________________________ Reduplication: We don't have this in English. But...reduplication is a way of building up words by repeating either a part or all of the base word. An example of total reduplication is found in the Indonesian word [rumahrumah] 'houses', which is built by reduplicating the root for house, [rumah]. Partial reduplication is found in the Philippine language Tagalog, where the future tense is expressed by reduplicating part of a verb. So we take the verb [bili] and reduplicate only the first two sounds to get the future form [bibili]. Task 6. Research on Samoan language: provide 1 example of a reduplicated word. Provide the un-reduplicated (original) one so that I can compare it with the reduplicated one. Submit it in a separate piece of paper. Classify it into total or partial reduplication _______________________________________________________________ Morpheme-Internal Changes Sometimes "adding" morphemes results in changes to a part of the word. We have some cases of this in English, though not "productive" ones. Think about the past of the verb [ring]. Is it [ring-ed]? No. Rather, we change the vowel in the middle from [i] to [a] and we get the (irregular and thus non-productive) past form [rang]. That's an example of a word that is built up by a morpheme-internal change. Task 7 Provide 2 Spanish examples of morpheme-internal change. 1. ___________________________________________________ 2. ___________________________________________________ 6 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Suppletion Suppletion is about irregularity taken one step further. Suppletive forms are morphologically complex forms in which the connection between the base and the newly created form is not obvious at all. Examples are helpful. We know that the regular past is formed by suffixing [-ed]. What happens when we make the past of [go]? The answer is that we get [went], which has NOTHING to do with the root [go]. This is a case of suppletion. Task 8 Provide 2 Spanish examples of suppletion. 1. ___________________________________________________ 2. ___________________________________________________ Blending Blending is like compounding in that it involves combining words. BUT, a part of each word gets lost along the way. Here's some examples: motel (a blend of motor + hotel) smog (a blend smoke and fog) Task 9 Provide 2 Spanish examples of blending 1. ___________________________________________________ 2. ___________________________________________________ Types of Languages Typology Linguists classify languages in terms of the way that they put morphemes together. Some languages have fairly "impoverished" morphological processes (English is one), while other languages have incredibly rich, complex morphological processes (Navajo is one). This section will review the basis ways that linguists classify things. Analytic languages What we mean by this term is that a language tends to not make words out of multiple morphemes. In a completely analytic language, every word would be made up of a single morpheme, and these one-morpheme words would then be combined to form sentences. That's why analytic languages are called isolating languages. I actually think "isolating" is a better, clearer term. Chinese is a very analytic language, and English is also fairly analytic. Analytic languages often have a rigid word order in their sentences, because they don't have lots of inflectional affixes to supply information about who is doing what to whom. So, if English had a rich case system, we might be able to say: 7 Lic. Christian Cristóful © man-object bites dog-subject dog-subject bites man-object and have them mean the same thing. The word order wouldn't matter, because the subject and object affixes would give us the important information about who the biter and bitee are. This is, in fact, the way Latin works (and lots of other still "living" languages). But, since English doesn't have such affixes, we rely on stricter word order to supply the "biter" "bitee" information. Synthetic languages (3 flavours) This is a cover term for languages with richer morphologies. That is, in synthetic languages, words tend to be morphologically complex, i.e. words tend to be built up by adding affixes. Here's a list of types of synthetic languages. Agglutinating. In agglutinating languages, the rule of thumb is that the morphemes that are joined together are easy to spot or pick apart. Hungarian, Swahili and Guarani are examples of agglutinating languages Task 10 Provide a Guarani word. Split it in order to show its agglutination __________________________________________________________________ Fusional. Fusional languages combine morphemes in such a way as to make picking out the individual morphemes more difficult. Spanish and Russian are examples. In Spanish, the stem meaning speak is hard to isolate. Is it "habl" or is it "habla"?. So, if the morphemes are easy to pick apart with nice, crisp boundaries, the language is more agglutinative. When the borders start looking messier between morphemes, we're talking fusional. Polysynthetic. Polysynthetic languages are best viewed as the opposite of analytic languages. If analytic languages represent one end of a continuum in which words tend to consist of a single morpheme, in Polysynthetic languages, words always consist of a combination of many morphemes which often result in full sentence meanings. Task 11 Conduct a research on polysynthetic languages: On a separate piece of paper list some of them (at least 3) __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ Final Odds and Ends A point of confusion: stems and roots. One thing that confuses people is the difference between a stem and a root. In simple terms, here's the difference. A root is always a single morpheme. By contrast, a stem can be (though it doesn't have to be) larger than a single morpheme. It's like squares and rectangles. A square is a rectangle, but not all rectangles are squares. If I have a 8 Lic. Christian Cristóful © word [cat-s], the morpheme [cat] is a root. It is also a stem. But, if I have a word like [undoable], I have a root [do] to which I add a suffix [-able] to get a stem [doable]. Now, I can add another affix, [un-] to get the word [undoable]. Task 12 What’s the root and what’s the stem of Outstanding? _______________________________________________________________________ Now, let's toss in the word base. A base is maximally general cover term for any morphological material that I add more material to (say via affixation) or that I copy (in reduplication) etc... So, in [undoable], [do] the root is the base to which I add [able]. Then, [doable] (the stem) is also a base to which I can add [un-]. Get it? Syntax What's Syntax? Some basics Words conjure up concepts even though they aren't the concept itself. So,"horse" is not actually a HORSE, and "cat" is not a CAT. Rather, these are examples of the arbitrariness of the sign, i.e. of the conventional pairing of sound and meaning. What we mean by this is that words and the things in the world that they point to are arbitrarily related. There's nothing inherently feline in the combination of sounds that makes up the word "cat." Thus, in Coatzospan Mixtec, a language spoken in Mexico, the word for CAT is "mishtun", which sounds completely different from the English word but means the same thing. Since signs are arbitrary, and one of the things The Mixtec are a Mesoamerican Indian people living in the mountainous country of Oaxaca in we have to do when we learn a southern Mexico. Surviving pre-Spanish documents language is memorize them. This may bring trace the history of individual Mixtec city-states to back fond memories of your English classes! the 7th century AD. The Mixtec were artisans famous for their gold jewelry, manuscript painting, Syntax is the study of how we put words stonecarving, and turquoise mosaic work. together to make sentences. One of the most interesting things about syntax is that it makes infinite use of finite media. We'll come back to this point. For now, consider this: Man bites dog IS NOT EQUAL TO Dog bites man We know this because we use a code, or set of rules, to translate between orders of words and combinations of thoughts. This set of rules is called a GENERATIVE GRAMMAR. Note: this is NOT the same as a pedagogical or PRESCRIPTIVE grammar. The study of syntax is not about telling people how they should talk; rather, it is about understanding the rules that a speech community employs by examining the way that the members of that community actually DO talk. So, syntax is not about telling you that you can't start a sentence with a conjunction, or that you can't split an infinitive, or that you can't strand a preposition at the end of a sentence. In fact, you CAN do all of these things 9 Lic. Christian Cristóful © in English, and we do so freely and frequently. Let's keep two important concepts separate then: Prescriptive Grammar: A set of artificial rules pertaining to some group's notion of "correct" usage. Examples from English are rules that prohibit split infinitives, as in the supposedly incorrect sentence "I wanted Zim to really try hard." Here, the prescriptive grammarian will tell us that the sentence is incorrect because the word "really" appears between the words "to" and "try", thus splitting the infinitive "to try". Prescriptive grammar is notable in that its rules often fly in the face of how many if not all of the speakers in a speech community actually use the language. And prescriptive grammar is neither what this course is about nor what serious linguistic scholarship concerns itself with (he says, while gleefully stranding the preposition with at the end of the phrase). Generative Grammar (by Noam Chomsky): A grammar that reflects the way a speech community uses a language. A generative grammar attempts to encode what it is that a speaker of a language knows, i.e. it characterizes the grammatical knowledge of the speaker. It DOESN'T prescribe what you can and can't say. The job of the generative grammar is two-fold. First, it has to characterize all of the sentences that native speakers judge to be acceptable sentences of their language. Secondly, it has to rule out sentences that are not possible sentences of a language. In a broader sense, a generative grammar must also accomplish these goals within the context of a set of rules and principles that are applicable across languages. Comprehension Questions Do you know what each of the following terms refer to? Monomorphemic ________________________________________ Polysynthetic ________________________________________ Agglutinating ________________________________________ Generative grammar ________________________________________ Bound morpheme ________________________________________ Root ________________________________________ Node ________________________________________ Internal structure ________________________________________ Analytic language ________________________________________ Inflection ________________________________________ Fusional ________________________________________ 10 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Practice Quiz POINTS: ___ GRADE: ___ FIRST YEAR - ENGLISH 3PG Comparative Morphosyntax - Quiz 37 point practice exam Lic. Christian Cristóful Facultad de Lenguas Vivas 5 (35-37 pts); 4 (32-34); 3 (29-31); 2 (26-28); 1 (01-25) PART I: MULTIPLE CHOICE EXERCISES (one point for each question = 6 points) In the blank space provided, write the letter of the expression which best completes the sentence. If you don't know, you should make an educated guess. You will lose half a point for each answer which is left blank. ____ 1. ____ 2. ____ 3. The smallest meaningful part of a lexical item is called a: (a) suffix (b) morpheme (c) phoneme. There's a good chance an affix is derivational if it: (a) changes the part of speech of the word it is added to; (b) doesn't change the part of speech to the base that it's added to; (c) is very productive Spanish is a(n) _________ language: (a) agglutinating; (b) fusional; (c) polysynthetic ____ 4. The words "house - chair - dog - book - stamp - e-mail - fax" belong to the ________ word class (a) verbs; (b) adjectives; (c) adverbs; (d) none of them ____ 5. Linguists classify languages in terms of (a) the way that they put morphemes together; (b) primitive vs technological; (c) prestige ____ 6. ___________ says that a Generative Grammar does not prescribe what you can or can’t say. (a) Ferdinand de Saussure; (b) Victoria Fromkin; (c) Noam Chomsky PART II: ANSWER THE QUESTIONS (two points for each question = 10 points) 1. Explain the ambiguity of "Mary loves visiting professors" ______________________________________________________________________ 2. How many morphemes does the English word “antidisestablishmentarianism” have? ______________________________________________________________________ 3. What kind of irregularities do the following suffer: tooth→teeth; man→men? ______________________________________________________________________ 4. What morpheme is shared by these words? What does it mean? “badness, fairness, goodness, wellness” ____________________________________________ What's an AFFIX? 5. Provide three additional words containing that An affix is a bound morpheme attached to a stem morpheme ____________________________________________ or root morpheme. There are several kinds of PART III: PROVIDE EXAMPLES (one point for each question = 5 points) 1. Of an ambiguous sentence in Spanish ___________________________________ 2. Of a bound morpheme (underline the morpheme in the word) ___________________________________ 11 affixes: prefixes, as in independency (in_ is attached to the root); suffixes, as in books (an 's' is attached to the root); infixes, as in Samoan language "malolosi" [they are strong] where "lo" indicates plural (they as opposed to he); and circunfixes, as in Dutch language "Gewandeld" [have walked] where "Ge" indicates [have] and "d" indicates past participle Lic. Christian Cristóful © 3. Of a grammatically correct (well-formed) sentence with no sense at all ___________________________________ 4. Of a circumfixed word in Spanish ___________________________________ 5. Of a meaningful ill-formed sentence ___________________________________ PART IV: MODIFIED TRUE/FALSE EXERCISES (one point for each question = 9 points) Circle the letter "T" if the statement is true and "F" if it is false. If you mark "F", correct the statement. If you don't know, you should make an educated guess. You will lose half a point for each answer that is left blank. T F 7. Words are impossible to define in absolute terms T F 8. The sentence "el gato está junto a la pava" is ambiguous T F 9. Grammar is impossible to define in absolute terms T F 10. The English language possesses affixation, compounding, reduplication, morpheme-internal changes, suppletion, and blending T F 11. The Swahili words “ninasoma” (I am reading); “Anasoma” (s/he is reading) “tunasoma” (we are reading) indicate that the agglutinating segment “soma” means “to read” T F 12. The Swahili words “nitasoma” (I will read) and tutasoma (we will read) indicate that the agglutinating segment “nita” means “I” and “tuta” means “we” T F T F 13. 14. The Swahili word “Atasoma” means s/he reads T F 15. Morphology is the aspect of grammar which contains rules about how words are put together to make sentences. It is also the speaker's knowledge for those rules. English has suffixes, prefixes, circumfixes and even infixes PART V: LOOK AT THE TEXT. If there are grammatically correct sentences, write a "G" next to it. If they are not, CORRECT the mistakes (1 pt. for each question = 7 pts) 1. My job as an airline pilot is to fly the aircraft and also 2. to take up responsibility for the safety of the passengers 3. and the crew. It's may seem as a glamorous job because 4. I go to the exciting places but that isn't the whole story 5. You don't get much time for sightseeings and, 6. if you are flying on short trips, you sometimes feel a bit 7. like a bus driver, just going backwards and forwarding 12 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Lesson 2. Grammar By the end of this lesson you need to be able to explain and exemplify how grammar is a classification of signals; a set of patterns; a description of probability or closeness of lexical sequence; and a set of generational/transformational structure rules. What is Grammar? Fill in the Gaps. I. Grammar is a classification of the signals that differentiate one sentence from another. Some of the grammatical signals of English and Spanish are: a. _______________________________: The experiment made the alchemist mad vs. the mad alchemist made the experiment. This pair of sentences has exactly the same ___________________ but a completely different ______________. What makes this difference? ____________________ Compare: La hija bonita de Don Juan es amiga mía vs. La bonita hija de Don Juan es amiga mía La hija bonita implies _________________________________________________, while la bonita hija makes no such implication. b. _______________________________: (Phonology is part of Grammar) There are three principal signals given by it: a) It joins phrases together into a single unit, as in ¿Qué está haciendo Leticia?↓ b) it disjoins phrases which are not a single unit ¿Qué está haciendo Leticia?↓ c) it marks certain sentence types, such as the interrogative. ¿Cómo te llamás? ↑ Provide examples of each in English (do not translate the examples) _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ c. _______________________________: Each word of a sentence probably has a specifiable function, as in “they do not know” not is seen to add a semantic element to the sentence: that of negation. What’s the function of the following lexical items? Have _____________ But ______________ d. _______________________________: This is a process by which word elements are attached to a lexical unit either to signal some syntactic function (‘s indicating possessive) or to enable a word to function in a different class of words (In Spanish capaz, which is an adjective, plus _idad produces a noun) II. Grammar is a finite number of sentence patterns, each pattern containing one or 13 Lic. Christian Cristóful © more slots within a corresponding class of lexical units may replace one another. Provide an example for the following pattern: Det + N + V(int) + Adv ______________________________________________________ III. Grammar is a description of the probability of relationships between lexical units in sequence. Some sequences have a probability of zero and some of 100 per cent. For example, the word arrow has a probability of close to zero in the sequence I think I’ll______, but of close to 100 per cent in the sequence I think I’ll shoot my bow and___________. Provide and example in Spanish of zero and an example of 100% of probability: ______________________________ IV. Grammar is a description of the degrees of closeness – or clustering – of lexical units in sequence. In the sentence “the naughty girl plays in the yard,” there is a close relationship of the naughty girl, on the one hand, and of plays in the yard, on the other. These, then, are two IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENTS of the sentence. Each of these, in turn, contains further immediate constituents. Describe them: _________________________________________________________________________ Draw a tree diagram for the sentence above. Write its syntactic rules V. Grammar is a set of phrase structure rules for the derivation of simple active declarative sentences, combined with a set of transformational rules which, when applied to the sentences derived by the phrase structure rules, add to, subtract from, or modify the order within them, or combine them in complex ways. Transform the following sentence into its question form: The boy is going home. ___________________________ Did it add to, subtract from or just modified the order of the sentence? Provide a sentence in English and one in Spanish where when changing to the interrogative form, you need to add lexical items to the sentence. ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ 14 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Task 13 (15 process points). Write the answers (just the answers, do NOT copy the whole exercise, in a separate piece of paper and hand this in next class) Exercise 13.1. Look at the sentences. If they are grammatically correct, write a "G" next to them. If they are not, write "U" and CORRECT THE MISTAKES. Example: There wasn't nobody in the room. anybody U 1. These young child to whom I spoke answered me insolently 2. Nobody in his right mind are willing to do such a thing 3. Frowning slightly, he went on stoking the furnace 4. Margery seemed paying no attention to us 5. She refused indignantly accompany him to the Junior Ball 6. It was a very good example of what can happen when someone pours glue into a radiator 7. He had bringed me a large glass of milk 8. The next speaker, a writer of western stories, humorously explain to us some of the problems he have to solve. 9. We had never in our lives known a Siamese cat that could speak more than three languages. 10. Besides speak English, she also speaks Chinese 13.2. TAXONOMY (classification): Each box contains some items that have something in common and belong to the same category. Do some research and say what category they belong to These are Syntactic Categories Example: NP, VP, PP 1. Determiners, auxiliaries, prepositions, conjunctions, complementisers, intensifiers, (pro)nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs 2. A - an - my - our - your - her - its - their - this - these that - those - every - each - any - no - both - some many - few - several - all - most - more - either – neither 3. His, my, yours, hers, etc 4. This, that, those, these 5. Either, neither, each, both, all, some, many, few, something, somebody, someone, anything, anybody, anyone, nothing, nobody, noone, one, none. 15 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Lesson 3. Verb Patterns in English We will now look at some typical sentence patterns from a functional perspective. The Subject is usually (but not always) the first element in a sentence, and it is followed by the verb: Pattern 1 Subject + Intransitive Verb Subject David Verb sings The dog barked Susan yawned In this pattern, the verb is not followed by any Object, and we refer to this as an intransitive verb. If the verb is monotransitive, it takes a Direct Object, which follows the verb: Pattern 2 Subject David Verb sings Direct Object ballads The professor wants to retire The jury found the defendant guilty In the ditransitive pattern, the verb is followed by an Indirect Object and a Direct Object, in that order: Pattern 3 Subject Verb Indirect Object Direct Object The old man gave the children some money My uncle sent me a present The detectives asked Amy lots of questions Adjuncts are syntactically peripheral to the rest of the sentence. They may occur at the beginning and at the end of a sentence, and they may occur in all three of the patterns above: 16 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Pattern 4 (Adjunct) Subject Verb Indirect Object Direct Object sings (Adjunct) [1] Usually David in the bath [2] Unfortunately the professor wants to retire this year [3] At the start of the trial the judge the photographs in a private chamber showed the jury Pattern 4 is essentially a conflation of the other three, with Adjuncts added. We have bracketed the Adjuncts to show that they are optional. Strictly speaking, Objects are also optional, since they are only required by monotransitive and ditransitive verbs, as in the examples [2] and [3] above. Exercise Match the sentences to the patterns: 1. The wall collapsed A. Subject -- Verb B. Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object C. Subject -- Verb -- Indirect Object -- Direct Object D. (Adjunct) -- Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object E. (Adjunct) -- Subject -- Verb -- (Adjunct) 2. During the war, many people lost their homes A. Subject -- Verb B. Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object C. Subject -- Verb -- Indirect Object -- Direct Object D. (Adjunct) -- Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object E. (Adjunct) -- Subject -- Verb -- (Adjunct) 3. I promised the children a trip to the zoo A. Subject -- Verb B. Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object C. Subject -- Verb -- Indirect Object -- Direct Object D. (Adjunct) -- Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object E. (Adjunct) -- Subject -- Verb -- (Adjunct) 4. When he was 12, David moved to London A. Subject -- Verb B. Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object C. Subject -- Verb -- Indirect Object -- Direct Object D. (Adjunct) -- Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object E. (Adjunct) -- Subject -- Verb -- (Adjunct) Indirect Object [IO]: it's the first object after the verb Direct Object [DO]: it's the second object after the verb without prepositions When we have prepositions there can never be IO. Ex: for you, to you, for him, etc 5. Paul hired a bicycle A. Subject -- Verb B. Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object C. Subject -- Verb -- Indirect Object -- Direct Object D. (Adjunct) -- Subject -- Verb -- Direct Object E. (Adjunct) -- Subject -- Verb -- (Adjunct) 17 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Some Untypical Sentence Patterns The sentence patterns we looked at on the previous page represent typical or canonical patterns But you will often come across sentences which do not conform to these patterns. We will look at some of these here. Pattern 5. Extraposition The Subject is sometimes postponed until the end of the sentence. Here are some examples: In first place is Red Rum Inside the house were two detectives More important is the question of compensation Here, the typical declarative order has been disrupted for stylistic effect. In these examples, the Subject comes after the verb, and is said to be EXTRAPOSED. Compare them with the more usual pattern: In first place is Red Rum ~Red Rum is in first place Inside the house were two detectives ~Two detectives were inside the house More important is the question of compensation ~The question of compensation is more important The Subject is also extraposed when the sentence is introduced by anticipatory it: It is a good idea to book early It is not surprising that he failed his exams In the more typical pattern, these constructions may sound stylistically awkward (like Yoda in Star Wars): To book early is a good idea That he failed his exams is not surprising Extraposition is not always just a matter of style. In the following examples, it is obligatory: It seems that he'll be late again ~*That he'll be late again seems It turned out that his secretary had stolen the money ~*That his secretary had stolen the money turned out Direct Objects, too, can be extraposed. Recall that their typical position is after the verb (Pattern 2). However, when anticipatory it is used, the Direct Object is extraposed: 18 Lic. Christian Cristóful © He made it very clear that he would not be coming back Again, the canonical pattern is stylistically very awkward: *He made that he would not be coming back very clear Pattern 6. Cleft Sentences A declarative sentence, such as David studied English at Oxford can be reformulated as: It was David who studied English at Oxford This is called a CLEFT SENTENCE because the original sentence has been divided (or "cleft") into two clauses: It was David and who studied English at Oxford. Cleft sentences focus on one constituent of the original sentence, placing it after it was (or it is). Here we have focussed on the Subject David, but we could also focus on the Direct Object English: It was English that David studied at Oxford or on the Adjunct at Oxford It was at Oxford that David studied English Cleft constructions, then, exhibit the pattern: It + be + focus + clause Practice Quiz 1. Expand the sentences so that they still belong to the same pattern: She cried The lonely girl who used to sit alone cried It barked _______________________________________________ The man went out _______________________________________________ 2. Explain the ambiguity: the detective looked hard 1. __________________________________________________________________ 2. __________________________________________________________________ 3. Finish the sentences using: appear, seem, become, smell, taste, feel, sound (linking words suitable for ambiguity) Example: This perfume smells better in winter Disco music... Athletes... Syntax: It is the aspect of grammar Cashmere sweaters... which contains rules about how words Male lions... are put together to make sentences. It is speakers' knowledge of those rules. People... 4. Identify the patterns Mr Hoskins looked foolish The little girl was upstairs I supposed her the maid Pattern 2 19 Lic. Christian Cristóful © It was inside The coyotes howled at the moon It seems rather sad He became a different person The men chose Jones their spokesman I considered it an insult Harold was in his room That was really foolish Sally stayed out It smelled good It smelled very good Bloodhounds smell well Alfred went home The beetle died quietly That sounds interesting The milk turned sour He turned quickly 5. Read the text. Underline the DO once, IO twice Buying a new car When you shop for a new car at the dealership, a sales person will show you cars on the lot and answer questions for you. He will tell you about the standard equipment and suggest options to you. The salesman will then add up the total cost of the car and give you a price. Usually, the price he gives you is more than you will really have to pay. You offer him a lower amount. If the salesman thinks your offer is reasonable, you are ready to sign an agreement. If you cannot pay the dealer the full cost, you may get a loan from the bank. The bank will charge you interest for the loan and you will probably repay the bank on a monthly basis. The bank keeps the title of the car until you repay the loan. When you make your final payment, the bank sends you the title. 6. Add an object complement to each sentence The jury believed the defendant... The coach called Bruce... His children considered their teacher... The sport writer thought the baseball player... A Phrase Structure Tree (= constituent structure tree) is a tree diagram with syntactic category information provided. It shows (1) the linear order of the words in the sentence. (2) the groupings of words into particular syntactic categories. (3) the hierarchical structure of the syntactic categories. 20 There is no gender marker for verbs, either in English or in Spanish Lic. Christian Cristóful © Lesson 4. Basic Sentence Patterns in Spanish Pattern #1 Equational Statement a) NP + El Usted Ella La fiesta V- ser es es es es + (NP) (Adj) (Adv) el nuevo cónsul muy amable de Argentina en casa de Juan Provide one more example:___________________________________________ b) NP Ella Ella + V- estar está está + (Adj)(Adv) bonita aquí Provide one more example:___________________________________________ Pattern #2 Intransitive Statement NP + VP(int) Ellos corren Aquella niña baja de pelo negro come bien abundantemente con sus amigos Provide one more example:___________________________________________ Pattern #3 Transitive Statement a) NP + Ellos Los soldados b) NP + Ellos Los soldados Esa VP(tr) quieren mataron + NP (DO) el agua a los desertores Pron (DO) la los se + VP(t) quieren mataron perdió Provide one more example:___________________________________________ Pattern #4 Transitive Receiver Statement a) NP + VP(tr) + El dio El hizo NP(DO) el libro un traje + (para, a) a para + NP Juan mí b) NP El El + Pron le me + VP(tra) dio hizo + NP(DO) el libro un traje + (a + NP) (a Juan) (a mí) c) NP El El + Pron se me + Pron lo lo + VP(tra) dio hizo + (a + NP) (a Juan) (a mí) 21 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Provide one more example:___________________________________________ Pattern #5 Complement Statement a) 1. NP + VP(t) + Ellos eligieron Su padre consideraba b) c) d) NP(Comp) presidente un hombre + (a) a a + NP(DO) Juan Juan 2. NP Ellos Su padre + Pron lo lo + VP + eligieron consideraba NP(Comp) presidente un hombre 1. NP Ellos Ellos + VP(t) + consideraban creían Adj(Comp) + capacitado bonita (a) a a 2. NP Ellos Ellos + lo la Pron + VP(t) consideraban creían 1. NP Yo Yo + VP(t) ví observé + (a) NP(DO) + a los hombres a los huéspedes VP(inf) (Comp) correr salir a las dos 2. NP Yo Yo + VP(t) ví observé + VP(inf) Comp+ correr salir (a) a a 3. NP Yo Yo + Pron los los + VP(t) ví observé VP(int) (inf) (Comp) correr salir 1. NP Yo Yo + VP(t) ví ví + (a) NP(DO) + a los hombres a los huéspedes VP(_ndo) (Comp) corriendo saliendo 2. NP Yo Yo + Pron lo los + VP(t) escuché ví VP(_ndo) (Comp) corriendo saliendo + NP(DO) Juan María + Adj (Comp) capacitado bonita + + e) NP El El El + VP(t) quiere dijo debe + VP(inf) (Comp) ir estar en casa tomar cerveza f) NP El El Yo + VP tiene acaba voy + Rel que de a + NP(DO) los hombres los huéspedes VP(inf) (Comp) ir a casa salir entrar Provide one more example:___________________________________________ 22 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Pattern #6 Indefinite Equational Pattern a) Hay +NP + Hay un señor Hay mucha gente (_ndo) esperando + (Adv) afuera afuera b) Hay Hay Hay +NP + mucho unos hombres que que que +VP(inf) hacer contratar c) Hay Hay Hay + que que que +VP(inf) hacer eso salir Practice task. Classify the sentences into patterns Ese can es de China. La desconsolada niña de mejillas rojas que se asemeja a su madre cuando ésta era joven, grita con todas sus fuerzas en el viejo granero azul que está detrás de la casa. Todos los interesados, incluyendo al presidente mismo, le eligieron vocero. El vaso está vacío. Los antiguos vecinos eran de la Madre Patria. La pelota está inflada. Todos los alumnos, incluyendo al bravucón de la clase, le eligieron tesorero. El pequeño perro marrón que encontramos en la calle llora en la antigua habitación pintada de rosa viejo. Todo el mundo le creía inocente. Tanto nosotros como ellos le creíamos justo. Revision. Classify the sentences into patterns 1. It is me the one who took your money 2. It is not a good idea to cheat when having an exam 3. It was yesterday when she wept 4. Last Monday, Marcela, the one from 2PG passed her exam 5. My sister promised my mother a pair of new shoes 6. Susana’s big black dog barked 7. That he loves Marion is not surprise at all 8. That hospital nurse found many different kinds of medicine 9. The beautiful lady who lives next door told me a secret 10. The crazy child that lives next door writes Cleft 30 Point Revision Exam 5 (29-30 pts); 4 (26-28); 3 (23-25); 2 (21-22); 1 (01-20) 23 Lic. Christian Cristóful © PART I: MULTIPLE CHOICE EXERCISES (one point for each question = 5 points) In the blank space provided, write the letter of the expression which best completes the sentence. Only one of the choices is the correct one. Choose the one which is the best. If you don't know, you should make an educated guess. YOU WILL LOSE HALF A POINT FOR EACH ANSWER WHICH IS LEFT BLANK. ____ 1. ____ 2. ____ 3. Words that have only one morpheme are called: (a) polymorphemic (b) monosyllables (c) monomorphemic The suffix _s in the word governments is: (a) inflectional; (b) derivational The suffix _ment in the word treatment is: (a) inflectional; (b) derivational ____ 4. Morphologically complex forms in which the connection between the base and the newly created form is not obvious at all refers to: (a) reduplication; (b) blending; (c) compounding (d) suppletion. ____ 5. Isolating languages are also: (a) agglutinating; (b) fusional; (c) polysynthetic; (d) analytic. PART II: MODIFIED TRUE/FALSE EXERCISES (one point for each question = 10 points) Circle the letter "T" if the statement is true and "F" if it is false. If you mark "F", CORRECT the statement. If you don't know, you should make an educated guess. You will lose half a point for each answer that is left blank. T F 6. Fusional languages are synthetic T F 7.There's nothing inherently feline in the combination of sounds that makes up the word "cat", that's why we say that this is not arbitrary T F 8. A set of artificial rules pertaining to some group's notion of "correct" usage is known as prescriptive grammar T F 9. Grammatical signals are: word order, intonation, function words, and derivation T F 10. In the sentence "a sales person will show you cars on the lot," "you" is the DO T F 11. Tooth → teeth. This plural form suffers from reduplication T F 12. NP, VP & PP are lexical categories T F 13. The lexical item “sister” is an adjective in the phrase “the sister mountains of the Himalayas” T F 14. The lexical item “year” is a noun in the phrase “that 7-year-old boy” T F 15. Transitive verbs are verbs that must be followed by a noun-phrase direct object. PART III: PROVIDE EXAMPLES OF (one point for each question = 5 points) 6. Pattern #6b in Spanish ___________________________________ 7. A cleft sentence 24 Lic. Christian Cristóful © ___________________________________ 8. Pattern #3 in English ___________________________________ 9. A Spanish example of zero probability of relationships between lexical units in sequence ___________________________________ 10. a monomorphemic lexical item ___________________________________ PART IV: CLASSIFY THE SENTENCES INTO PATTERNS (10 points) It was me the one who dropped the gun The little white and brown guinea pig died The little white and brown guinea pig died in the park yesterday The little girl whose mother had to be taken to hospital urgently, gave John the knife The choleric men that had voted previously, chose Clinton their spokesman Javier, el nene de la casa de al lado me lo hizo La amiga de Casilda que vive frente al banco está hermosa La prima de Lucia, la chica que habla tres idiomas, se perdió Hay que tener valor para soportar semejante ejercicio gramatical ¡Yo voy a entrar en la sala, le guste a la señora o no! BONUS POINT: Provide the lexical categories for the following sentence "my little pink rabbit lies motionless in the wardrobe" Task 14. Write the answers (just the answers, do NOT copy the whole exercise. Submit in a separate piece of paper) 14. 1. Write the syntactic category for: example: boys [NP] play [VP] Birds fly - The bird sang - The happy bird sang - Neither understood it well - That is strange 14.2. List the following words in the corresponding classes: Walk - scarf - became - quite - beautiful - new - the - house - pretty - that - somewhat appeared - useful - rather - chair - very – sister - skirt Nouns e.g. computer Verbs give Adjectives white Determiners an Adverbs much 14.3. Provide examples using all 18 words from above. A sentence might contain more than one of the words required. 25 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Word Classes and Morphological Characteristics Lesson 5. Nouns and Adjectives In linguistic analysis, WORD FORMATION is to be distinguished from sentence formation. The former is described as the MORPHOLOGY of the language, and the latter as its SYNTAX. Morphology, then, is the study of words and their components, which in Spanish and English are STEMS and AFFIXES. MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS is the study of the formal characteristics, shapes, and variations of lexical items. Spanish has inflection in the nouns, adjectives, verbs, and pronouns; English has inflection in all these except adjectives. All inflectional affixes in both languages are SUFFIXES attached to the end of stems. Nouns Spanish In Spanish, the class NOUN is associated with an inflectional category: NUMBER. When does the noun add “_s” and when “_es” to form the plural? Casa = casas mes = meses. Write the rule here________________________________________________ All Spanish nouns have inherent grammatical gender; they are not INFLECTED for gender. Often they are marked with an /_o/ for masculine and an /_a/ for feminine. Some forms have common gender, where the same form may be either masculine or feminine. Ex. ______________________________. Gender assignment of any particular noun is arbitrary. English English nouns are inflected for two categories: 1. They have a plural, formed by a regular rule with an inflectional affix that we will call S-1. S-1 /_/ /_s/ /_z/ after _________________ after _________________ consonants elsewhere (after ____________ consonants and after _______________) Classify the plural forms according to their final pronunciation Horses / /; hats / /; bugs / /; dishes / /; bees / /; lips / /; judges / /; days / / There are numerous irregular plural formations 1) The above rule with stem modification: _____________ ________ ____________ 2) A completely different set involving other suffixes _____________ _____________ 3) An internal change in the stem: ______________ ________________ 4) A suffix zero, symbolised _ø indicating no formal change in the stem form, but with plural meaning: __________________ ________________ 2. English nouns also have inflection for another category: POSSESSION. Possessive forms are marked by an inflectional affix S-2. The pronunciation of the possessive is identical to the plural one. Classify the possessive forms according to their final pronunciation Judge’s / /; truck’s / /; mayor’s / /; church’s / /; pilot’s / /; James’ / / king’s / / 26 Lic. Christian Cristóful © English nouns also have inherent gender with important grammatical consequences. Male persons are masculine, female persons are feminine. Some animals are included in this gender system. Ex. ____________ ____________ _____________ Things and some animals are in the gender category NEUTER. Exception to these rules: The baby fell down from its cot. The ship lost her captain Learning problems: Pronunciation. Negative transference of possessive Gender Adjectives Spanish adjectives have inflection for two categories: NUMBER and GENDER. Examples: blanco, blanca, blancos, blancas. Not all the adjectives are inflected by gender though. El libro azul, la tinta azul. However, when changing to the diminutive, you need to add the gender marker again: azulito, azulita. Look for examples of more of these adjectives: There is a smaller group: the ones that have a shortened form: Bueno, buen, buena, buenos, buenas Provide more examples of these: Homework Submit (in a separate piece of paper) the answers to these questions next class. Make sure you state your source. When do you say: “Santo” and when “San”? “Grande” and when “gran”? When “Cien” and when “ciento”? Possessive adjectives The shortened form for mío/mía would be “mi” When or where do we place each of them? Neuter: it has a nominal (nounlike) function, rather than demonstrative Singular Plural Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine Est-e Est-a Est-os Est-as Es-e Es-a Es-os Es-as Aquel Aquell-a Aquell-os Aquell-as Neuter Est-o Es-o Aquell-o Learning problems: Number and Gender agreement. Spanish Singular Plural masculine Blanco blancos English Feminine Blanca Blancas 27 white Lic. Christian Cristóful © Lesson 6. Pronouns and Verbs Pronouns Pronouns are a major subclass of nouns. We call them a subclass of nouns because they can sometimes replace a noun in a sentence. When they refer to people, we call them PERSONAL PRONOUNS Other Types of Pronoun As well as personal pronouns, there are many other types, which we summarise here. Pronoun Type Object Possessive Reflexive Reciprocal Relative (complementizer) Demonstrative Interrogative Indefinite Members of the Subclass Example Me, you, him, her, us, them I told you to go there mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves each other, one another The white car is mine He injured himself playing football They really hate each other The book that you gave me was really boring This is a new car that, which, who, whose, whom, where, when this, that, these, those who, what, why, where, when, whatever anything, anybody, anyone, something, somebody, someone, nothing, nobody, none, no one What did he say to you? There's something in my shoe Case and number distinctions do not apply to all pronoun types. In fact, they apply only to personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, and reflexive pronouns. It is only in these types, too, that gender differences are shown (personal he/she, possessive his/hers, reflexive himself/herself). All other types are unvarying in their form. Many of the pronouns listed above also belong to another word class - the class of determiners. They are pronouns when they occur independently, that is, without a noun following them, as in This is a new car. But when a noun follows them - This car is new - they are determiners. A major difference between pronouns and nouns generally is that pronouns do not take the or a/an before them. Further, pronouns do not take adjectives before them, except in very restricted constructions involving some indefinite pronouns (a little something, a certain someone). While the class of nouns as a whole is an open class, the subclass of pronouns is closed. Exercise In each of the following sentences a pronoun has been highlighted. What type of pronoun is it? 1. Let's contact one another once we've made some progress. 2. She wants to do it herself. 3. I can't find them. 28 a) Personal; b) Reflexive; c) Possessive; d) Relative; e) Indefinite; f) Reciprocal; g) Interrogative; h)object a) Personal; b) Reflexive; c) Possessive; d) Relative; e) Indefinite; f) Reciprocal; g) Interrogative; h)object a) Personal; b) Reflexive; c) Possessive; d) Relative; e) Indefinite; f) Reciprocal; g) Interrogative; h)object Lic. Christian Cristóful © 4. I can't believe it's finally ours. 5. The girl who usually cuts my hair has won the lottery. 6. He wants to go to Scarborough. 7. Why are you shouting at me? 8. Jim gave me the last copy. 9. Nobody said a word all night. Pronouns are a small closed class in both Spanish and English. In Spanish there is a full set of distinctions for PERSON (1°, 2°, 3°) and NUMBER (singular, plural), a partial set of CASE distinctions (reflexive: se; indirect: me; direct: le, lo, la), specifically marked GENDER forms (malefemale), and a LEVEL OF FORMALITY category in the form of the second person (tú/vos/usted; ustedes/vosotros). In some variations of Spanish, a distinction is made between masculine things and person as the referent of the direct object when singular, le referring to persons and lo to things (Leismo). The English pronoun system is simpler than Spanish, with distinctions for number, case (nominative as in woman, and possessive woman’s), and gender. The following chart of possibilities illustrates the extent of the potential conflict between the two systems: English I We You He She It They Me Us Him Her them a) Personal; b) Reflexive; c) Possessive; d) Relative; e) Indefinite; f) Reciprocal; g) Interrogative; h)object a) Personal; b) Reflexive; c) Possessive; d) Relative; e) Indefinite; f) Reciprocal; g) Interrogative; h)object a) Personal; b) Reflexive; c) Possessive; d) Relative; e) Indefinite; f) Reciprocal; g) Interrogative; h)object a) Personal; b) Reflexive; c) Possessive; d) Relative; e) Indefinite; f) Reciprocal; g) Interrogative; h)object a) Personal; b) Reflexive; c) Possessive; d) Relative; e) Indefinite; f) Reciprocal; g) Interrogative; h)object a) Personal; b) Reflexive; c) Possessive; d) Relative; e) Indefinite; f) Reciprocal; g) Interrogative; h)object Spanish Yo Nosotros, nosotras Tú, vos, vosotros, vosotras, usted, ustedes, ti, te, os, lo, la, le, los, las, les, se Él Ella ---, lo, la, él, ella, ello ellos, ellas mí, me nos, nosotros, nosotras lo, le, se, él la, le, se, ella los, las, les, se, ellos, ellas An important problem revealed by this chart is the correspondence of sixteen Spanish forms to the English pronoun you, which is not formally marked for gender, number, case, or formality level. 29 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Most of the English pronouns have from two to four Spanish equivalents, except them, which has six. Numerals Numerals include all numbers, whether as words or as digits. They may be divided into two major types. CARDINAL numerals include words like: nought, zero, one, two, 3, fifty-six, 10 a thousand ORDINAL numerals include: first, 2nd, third, fourth, 500th We classify numerals as a subclass of nouns because in certain circumstances they can take plurals: five twos are ten; he's in his eighties They may also take the: the fourth of July; a product of the 1960s And some plural numerals can take an adjective before them, just like other nouns: o the house was built in the late 1960s he's in his early twenties the temperature is in the high nineties In each of our examples, the numerals occur independently, that is, without a noun following them. In these positions, we can classify them as a type of noun because they behave in much the same way as nouns do. Notice, for example, that we can replace the numerals in our examples with common nouns: he is in his eighties the fourth of July a product of the 1960s ~he is in his bedroom ~the beginning of July ~a product of the revolution Numerals do not always occur independently. They often occur before a noun, as in one day; three pages; the fourth day of July In this position, we classify them as determiners. Verbs Verbs in Spanish are inflected for FINITY (finite and non-finite), TENSE (past, non past) and ASPECT (perfective, imperfective), MOOD (indicative, subjunctive), PERSON (1 st, 2nd, 3rd), and NUMBER (plural, singular). The Spanish verb carries more information than the English verb. Verbs in English have five different categories: TENSE, PERSON-NUMBER, and two PARTICIPLES (imperfective and perfective) Derivational Analysis Spanish and English share a number of features in their derivational structure. In both languages, derivational affixes are stem forming; derivation is a continuing process in both languages, with some affixes still producing new words; both languages have derivational prefixes as well as suffixes. Provide examples of items in Spanish which, though they exist, are not the usual semantic 30 Lic. Christian Cristóful © equivalents of English. Then do the opposite with English. Spanish English Competición Competition English Reading Spanish Lectura Spanish Competencia English Lecture The comparative and superlative suffixes are another example of derivational affixation. Example: tall_er; tall_est. Consider the data and provide a rule for doubling the consonant. Bigger Hotter [+consonant] → [double consonant] / Fatter English has a few diminutives: Johnny, cigarette, piglet Spanish has at least seven diminutive endings, (some of them metaphorically diminutive, which results in Pejoration) of which two or three are widely used. The list includes _ito; _illo; _ico; _ejo; _uelo; _ín, _ucho, as in: 1. ________________ 5. ________________ 2. ________________ 6. ________________ 3. ________________ 7. ________________ 4. ________________ 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The Spanish augmentative suffixes have no counterpart in English. Common suffixes are _ón; _azo; _ota; _acho; _aco (some of them pejorative): ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ ________________ In addition to affixation, Spanish has two other derivational processes: ENCLISIS and COMPOUNDING. Enclisis. It is a process of word formation in which stems from two word classes combine in such a way that one occurs only with the other. Example: Está dándo-me-lo. Me-lo-está dando. Provide another example________________________ Compounding. When two stems are used to form a new lexical item. English makes extensive use of compounding; Spanish very limited use. Examples: 31 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Spanish English Learning Problems: Concepts to master in this lesson: Pronouns: definition; types Numerals: definition; types Derivational Analysis Diminutives Augmentatives Enclisis Compounding What's the difference between transitive and intransitive verbs? A transitive verb is one that must be followed by a nounphrase direct object, while an intransitive verb is one that may not be followed by a noun phrase direct object. Eg. sleep 33 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Lesson 7. The Noun Phrase and its Constituents NP→ D (Adj) + N (Adj) I. Determiners English {The D→ {a – some {Ø In Spanish the formula is similar {El {un {Ø D→ Explain the differences between definite and indefinite articles. Explain in which context one might say “open the door” vs. “open a door”. “Tell me the truth” vs “Don’t tell me a lie” “The president will speak tonight” “The sun is too hot” Comparison: Determiners Definite Articles Spanish singular: el, la, lo; plural: los, las English both sing. and plural: // before a consonant; // What’s the phonological rule for using the article “el” in Spanish before feminine nouns? Compare the data and provide the rule. El agua El hacha El aula la ardilla la hacienda la actuación La + [+ feminine noun] → el + [+ feminine noun] / _ Indefinite Articles Compare the data and provide the rule for the shortening of the lexical item “uno” in Spanish? Un mono Un árbol Un poco hacia uno para uno de unoun asta un área un hada Uno → un / English The patterns of use for the definite and indefinite articles in English are numerous. Form The definite article has only one written form – “The” There are 2 pronunciations: / / which is used before consonant sounds - The boat, the team / / which is used before vowel sounds - The egg, the MBA course Each phrase category has its head. For instance, P is the head of PP, N is the head of NP and V is the head of VP Use a) At times you must use the definite article because of the noun that follows, for example with some proper nouns or nouns referring to certain institutions. b) Usually speakers have to make decisions determined by context and situation about whether or not to use the definite article. 34 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Generic Reference Referring to a whole class or species of something when you want to generalise: (1) The Australian people will soon make a decision about the monarchy. Here the sentence refers to the Australians in general. There are many ways of using articles for generic reference: (2) It is amazing what people get up to. (no article + plural count noun) (3) A woman always ends up working harder than a man. (the indefinite article + singular count noun) (4) The manager should always take responsibility (definite article + singular count noun) (5) Love is a marvellous thing. (no article + uncount noun) The fact that there are different patterns does not mean that we can substitute one pattern for the other. Common errors include: i. *The love is very important* ii.*The people are very strange* (but in specific reference this is fine – The people over there are very strange) Specific Reference Where you refer to a specific individual, object or group: (6) The women in my class have a lot of fun together. Here the speaker is referring to a limited, specific group of people and not to women in general. Contrasting use of the definite and indefinite articles. (7) I’ll meet you at the pub. (8) Why don’t we meet in a pub? In (7) the speaker assumes the person she is speaking to knows the pub that she is referring to. Perhaps they often meet in this pub, or the specific pub has already been referred to in the conversation. In (8) the speaker may have a specific pub in mind but she does not indicate this in the sentence. She might mean – let’s meet in a pub, the specific pub is not important – or she might not share knowledge of any pub with the person to whom she is speaking. Making the decision to use the definite article There are many factors to consider. Here are some of them. Anaphora (referring back to something) (9) There is a funny smell in the kitchen. I opened the fridge but the smell is not coming from there. I think it might be gas. In (9) there are three references to smell. In the first sentence the speaker uses an indefinite article because she assumes that the smell is new to the listener. In the second sentence she uses the definite article because she is referring back to the ‘smell’ referred to in the first sentence. Situational Uses (10) Please do the washing up before you leave the house. If I am talking to my son in the situation in (10) I can assume that he understands both that I am referring to the house that he is in, and that ‘the washing up’ refers to the washing up in the sink, in the kitchen, in that house. (11) I am going to pick my friend up from the station. In this situation the speaker is referring to a specific station, probably a station which the speaker and listener recognise as the ‘normal’ station. (12) Please pass me the phone This is similar to the example above. The speaker refers to a phone in the immediate vicinity of the speaker and listener. If there were many phones in the room the speaker might say – Please pass me a phone Unique items (13) I would like to visit the moon so that I could look down on the world and see the north and south poles Where you are referring to something of which there is only one – the moon, the sun, the pope, the weather, the King of Spain – you use the definite article. 35 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Exercises 1) Complete the sentences below by inserting ‘the’, ‘a’, ‘an’ or by leaving the space blank. a) She is the oldest woman in ________ world. b) Once upon a time there was _____ evil king and _____ slightly mad queen. ______ King sold his soul to ______ devil and _____ Queen fell in love with _____ stable boy. c) Mother said to father, “Please pass _____ salt and do stop making ______ mess with ______ soup.” d) What _____ lovely day! There isn’t _____ cloud in ______ sky. 2) Complete the sentences below inserting ‘the’ in each space along with an appropriate noun group. a) We came in through the front door and went out through ________ . b) It is a great kitchen; ______ is so big that we can buy food for the whole week in advance. ______ is big too, the other day I cooked _______ . c) ______ at the hospital wasn’t not very sympathetic about my broken leg but _____ was a lot more caring. d) I spent the whole evening looking up at _____ but I didn’t see the comet as it passed because of ______. 3) In the following sentences there are two noun groups to choose from in order to finish the sentence. Choose the noun groups which are correct. In some none are correct, in others only one is correct and in some both are. Be ready to explain your answers. a) We should leave now. John will soon be at a station / the station b) Nobody likes going to the dentist /a dentist c) People will be able to see the comet / a comet tonight d) I used to have a beautiful, old trumpet / the beautiful, old trumpet. e) Don’t wait for the bus / a bus, it might never come. Get the taxi / a taxi. f) I left the light on when I went to the bed / a bed II. Demonstratives The demonstratives and the possessives can replace the primary determiners in a noun phrase. The DEMONSTRATIVES have five forms in a set similar to the determiner el and the subject pronoun él . Masculine Feminine Neuter Singular Plural Singular Plural Esto Este Estos Esta Estas Eso Ese Esos Esa Esas Aquello Aquel Aquellos Aquella Aquellas What do these Spanish lexical items mean, concerning proximity? Este: _____________________________________________ Ese: _____________________________________________ Aquel: ____________________________________________ The most striking difference between English and Spanish demonstratives is the inventory; four English forms carry the semantic load of fifteen Spanish forms. All English forms are neuter The almost unique instance of number distinction in the English demonstratives, with a singular this, that, opposed to plural these, those, is paralleled by Spanish forms which in addition show distinctions for gender. 36 Lic. Christian Cristóful © III. Possessives In Spanish, gender distinctions are lost when shortening the possessives. Compare mio, mia with mi. English possessives are pronoun forms. There is no shortening in English possessives. In Spanish, the possessives are adjectives, with all the forms and distinctions of this class. There is therefore and agreement relationship between the possessive and the noun it modifies which is absent in English: Nuestro coche, nuestra casa ..... our car, our house The contrastive Spanish and English patterns do not cause much trouble in first and second person references, but in third person, where Spanish suyo refers to both singular and plural possessors, and English –speaking student is often tempted to realign the Spanish forms to fit the number and gender categories of English with such inappropriate association as his= suyo, her= suya, their= suyos/as. In their modifying function, the Spanish possessives can be classified into three patterns: Before a noun. Example: ________________________ After the verb ser. Example: ______________________ After a noun. Example: __________________________ When possessive forms precede, they are shortened. Example: __________________ An error like esa casa de mía as in that house of mine is very easy to make. Exercise. Insert a, an, the, or my, his, her, our, your, their if necessary 1. He took off ______________ coat and set to work 2. Why are you standing there with ______________ hands in ______________ pockets? 3. At most meetings ______________ people vote by raising ______________ right hands 4. The bullet struck him in ______________ foot 5. They tied ______________ hands behind ______________ back and locked him in a cellar 6. He took ______________ shoes off and entered on ______________ tiptoe 7. Someone threw ______________ egg which struck the speaker on ______________ shoulder Learning Problems: 37 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Lesson 8. Mass nouns and Count nouns Mass Nouns: measurement of amount or volume. Examples: _________________________ Count Nouns: measurement of quantity or number. Examples: _______________________ Problems arise when a word classified as mass in one language is count in the other. Examples: _______________________________________________________________ When talking about the a/some construction, we can say that “a” is used with nouns in singular and “some” is used with nouns in plural. What about some used with mass nouns? ______________________________________________ To make a singular reference to a mass noun, it is necessary to use a COUNTER, such as piece, bar, grain, bit, item, glass, bucket. The two most obvious features of the distinction between mass and count nouns are: 1. The lack of a plural form for mass nouns. 2. The restriction of the indefinite determiner “a” to appearance with singular count nouns. Exercise In each of the following sentences, indicate whether the highlighted noun is count or noncount. 1. The board will meet tomorrow to consider your application. 2. The information you gave to the detective was very misleading. 3. I thought it was a strange comment to make. 4. Smoking damages your health. Count Mass Count Mass Count Mass Count Mass 5. Jean is studying music at college. Count Mass 6. I'll have a brandy, please. Count Mass In Spanish, the same distinctions between mass and count nouns exists, but with fewer grammatical consequences, in part caused by a frequent crossing of classes. (Are there really two separate classes, then?) Identify the “only” mass nouns (m) and the “only” count nouns (c) in Spanish from the following list: harina ( ), libro ( ), gratitud ( ), ojo ( ), obediencia ( ), uña ( ), quietud ( ), virtud ( ), canción ( ), justicia ( ), perro ( ), constancia ( ), termómetro ( ), rectitud ( ), información ( ) There is in Spanish an indefinite counter that appears only with mass nouns: un poco de. 38 Lic. Christian Cristóful © In Spanish, the indefinite article and the plural occur only in count constructions. Count nouns can be “massified”: What’s the difference between “there’s an egg on your plate” and “there’s egg on your plate” Two problems emerge from a comparison of English and Spanish with respect to massnoun/count-noun distinctions: (1) the discrepancies of class assignment for semantically equivalent lexical items, and (2) the limitations on the class “mass nouns” in Spanish. Examples of Mass nouns in English which are equivalent Spanish Counter + Mass Mass Noun Plural Count noun noun Gossip A piece of gossip Chismes Furniture A piece of furniture Muebles to count nouns in Singular Count noun Un chisme Un mueble A difficult problem for the English-speaking student of Spanish is the ease of converting Spanish mass nouns to count constructions that cannot be matched in English. They will tend to avoid the right column: English mass nouns Spanish mass or count nouns Two pieces of chalk Dos barras de tiza Dos tizas Two cloves of garlic Dos cabezas de ajo Dos ajos There are certain mass nouns in English similar to “news” for which Spanish has count/mass equivalents: English Grits Hives Oats Spanish Sémola Urticaria Avena Science or system names in English with the suffix _ics have usually singular Spanish 39 Lic. Christian Cristóful © equivalents English Mathematics Spanish Matemática Notice the effect the difference in use of count/mass nouns in Spanish has in English: Tienes un empleo? Have you got a job? Tienes empleo? Have you got work? Necesitas una empleada? Do you need a maid? Necesitas empleada? Do you need domestic help? What's the difference between the ROOT of a word and its STEM? Well, the root of the word is a nonaffix lexical-content morpheme which cannot be analysed into smaller parts. For example, the root of the word indoors is 'door'. The stem -on the other hand- is a root morpheme combined with affix morphemes; other affixes can be added to a stem to form a more complex stem. Example: the stem of the word indoors is 'indoor' [it contains the root plus the affix] Practice Quiz TP 37 PC: Grade: Part I. Circle the letter that corresponds to the expression that best fits the statement (10p). 01-25=1 26-28=2 29-31=3 32-34=4 35-37=5 1. Determiners are... [a] Nouns and Pronouns [b] Definite and Indefinite articles [c] Articles, possessives and demonstratives [d] all of the above 2. The Spanish augmentative suffixes... [a] Have their English counterpart in words such as big or huge [a] Have their English counterpart with comparative and superlative suffixes [a] Have no English counterpart [a] none of the above. 3. Enclisis is a process of word formation in which stems from two word classes... [a] get separated [b] combine [c] derive [d] none of the above 4. Morphology of the language has to do with [a] word formation [b] sentence formation [c] word interrelation [d] affixation 5. Exceptions in the inherent English gender category include... 40 Lic. Christian Cristóful © [a] it, they [b] boy, girl [c] fish, sheep [d] baby, ship 6. The Spanish expression “el libro azul” shows us that not all the adjectives in Spanish ... [a] are inflected by gender [b] are inflected by person [c] can be derived [d] none of these 7. Some of the grammatical signals of English and Spanish are: [a] word order & intonation [b] function words [c] affixation [d] all of them 8. An important problem an English speaker studying Spanish would have is the correspondence of ......................... Spanish forms to the English pronoun you, which is not formally marked for gender, number, case, or formality level [a] 12 [b] 7 [c] 16 [d] 20 9. “Stem” refers to: [a] suffixes [b] prefixes [c] 10. s→/_iz/ / _sibilants An example of counter would be... [a] very [b] an item of [c] any number [d] none of the above [d] intense Part II. Exercise (5p): Provide examples of items in Spanish which, though they exist, are not the usual semantic equivalents of English. Then do the opposite with English: Spanish English Spanish English Spanish English Part III. True or False. Correct the false statements by not just negating the verb. (5): T F 1. "That Julia loves Robert is known to all my friends" is an embedded sentence T F 2. In the sentence "I'd like a glass of milk" the indefinite article "a" is a counter T F 3. The English gender marker for definite articles has no counterpart in Spanish T F 4. "Oats" is an example of a system/science term with "_ics" ending T F 5. "virtud" is a mass nound in Spanish 41 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Part IV. Spanish Pronouns (5p) In the above sentences, replace the DO and IO with enclitic direct and indirect pronouns. 1. Le estoy devolviendo sus cosas a mi novia. _________________________________________________________________ 2. Alguien me regaló un sombrero mexicano. _________________________________________________________________ 3. El profesor me contó la historia de Cristóbal Colon. _________________________________________________________________ 4. Ella me prestó sus notas. _________________________________________________________________ 5. Te estamos prestando dinero, pero tienes que devolver el dinero. _________________________________________________________________ Part V. Morphemes Divide the following words by placing a "+" between their separate morphemes (some of the words may be monomorphemic and therefore indivisible) (5p) a) Replaces = b) Margin = c) Airsickness = d) Holiday = e) Televise = Part V. Determiners. Insert a, an or the and possessive adjectives if necessary (7p) 1. There was ________knock on _______ door. I opened it and found _______ small dark man in _______blue overcoat and _______woolen cap 2. I saw him raise______right and and take _______oath Bonus point: explain the ambiguity of "Several old dresses from grandmother in beautiful condition" Process Assignment Progress Hw1 Hw2 Hw3 Due Submited? 42 Hw4 Hw5 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Index Adjectives, 25, 26, 27 Adjunct, 17, 19, 44 Affixation, 5 Agglutinating, 8, 10 Ambiguity, 4 Analytic languages, 7, 8 Blending, 7 Bound morpheme, 10 Case, 28 Chinese, 8 Cleft sentences, 19 Compounding, 5, 31 Constituents, 34 Count nouns, 38, 39 Counter, 39 Demonstratives, 36 Derivational, 3, 30 Determiners, 15, 34 ditransitive, 16, 17 Enclisis, 31 English, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 19, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 36, 37, 39, 40, 43, 44 Extraposition, 18, 44 Free morpheme, 2 Fusional, 8, 10 Gender, 26, 27 Generative grammar, 10 Homework, 15, 27 Languages, 7 Mass nouns, 38, 39 Mexico, 9 Monomorphemic, 10 Morpheme, 6 Morphology, 1, 12, 26 Morphosyntax?, 1 Nouns, 25, 26, 38 Number, 27 Numerals, 30 Pattern, 16, 17, 18, 21, 22, 23, 44, 45 Polysynthetic, 8, 10 Possessive adjectives, 27 Possessives, 37 Prefix, 5 Prescriptive grammar, 10 Pronouns, 28, 29 Reduplication, 6 Root, 10 Samoan, 6 Spanish, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 21, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 43, 44 Suppletion, 7 Swahili, 1, 8, 12 Syntax, 1, 9 Synthetic languages, 8 Tagalog, 6 Verbs, 25, 28, 30 Sources This manual is a compilation of sources intended to fit the Morphosyntax syllabus Fromkin, Victoria & Robert Rodman. An Introduction to Language. 6th Edition. Harcourt Brace. 1998 Fromkin, Victoria. Linguistics. An Introduction to Linguistic Theory. Blackwell Publishers. 2000 Stockwell, Robert et all. The Grammatical Structures of English and Spanish. Chicago Press. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-grammar. The Survey of English Usage 1996-1998 http://www.sil.org/americas/brasil/fun/englboqz.htm. 1999 SIL International. http://www.onestopenglish.com/ProfessionalSupport/grammar/grammar.htm 43 Lic. Christian Cristóful © Appendix Tear down these sheets. Use them for the Mid term Quiz English Patterns Pattern 1: Subject + Intransitive Verb Subject Verb David sings Pattern 2: Subject Verb David Direct Object sings ballads Pattern 3 Subject Verb Indirect Object Direct Object The old man gave the children some money Pattern 4 (Adjunct) Subject Verb Indirect Object Direct Object (Adjunct) At the start of the trial the judge showed the jury the photographs in a private chamber Pattern 5 Extraposition Inside the house were two detectives Pattern 6 Cleft Sentences It was David who studied English at Oxford Spanish Patterns Pattern #1. Equational Statement a) NP + El b) NP Ella + V- ser + es (NP) (Adj) (Adv) el nuevo cónsul V- estar + está (Adj)(Adv) bonita Pattern #2. Intransitive Statement NP + VP(int) Aquella niña baja de pelo negro come abundantemente con sus amigos Pattern #3. Transitive Statement a) NP + VP(tr) Ellos quieren + NP (DO) el agua b) + VP(t) quieren NP Ellos + Pron (DO) la Pattern #4. Transitive Receiver Statement 44 Lic. Christian Cristóful © a) NP El + VP(tr) dio + NP(DO) el libro + (para, a) a Juan + NP b) NP El + Pron le + VP(tra) dio + NP(DO) el libro + (a + NP) (a Juan) c) NP El + Pron se + Pron lo + VP(tra) dio + (a + NP) (a Juan) + NP(Comp) presidente + (a) a + NP(DO) Juan + VP eligieron + NP(Comp) presidente + (a) a + NP(DO) Juan Pattern #5. Complement Statement a) 1. NP + VP(t) Ellos eligieron 2. NP Ellos + Pron lo 1. NP Ellos + VP(t) + consideraban Adj(Comp) capacitado 2. NP Ellos + Pron lo + VP(t) + consideraban Adj (Comp) capacitado 1. NP Yo + VP(t) ví + (a) NP(DO) + a los hombres VP(inf) (Comp) correr 2. NP Yo + VP(t) ví + VP(inf) Comp + correr (a) a 3. NP Yo + Pron los + VP(t) ví VP(int) (inf) (Comp) correr 1. NP Yo + VP(t) ví + (a)NP(DO) + a los hombres VP(_ndo) (Comp) corriendo 2. NP Yo + Pron lo + VP(t) escuché + VP(_ndo) (Comp) corriendo e) NP El + VP(t) quiere + VP(inf) (Comp) ir f) NP El + VP tiene + Rel que + VP(inf) (Comp) ir a casa + (_ndo) esperando + (Adv) afuera NP + unos hombres que que + VP(inf) contratar + que que + VP(inf) salir b) c) d) Pattern #6. Indefinite Equational Pattern a) Hay + NP Hay mucha gente b) Hay Hay c) Hay Hay + 45 + NP(DO) los hombres