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The Roman Empire and Christianity: In spite of Christianity’s great appeal and organizational success, to worship as a Christian remained dangerous for more than three hundred years. Christians devised secret codes and signals, and practiced their services and ceremonies in hidden places, often in underground chambers called catacombs. Roman persecution was a constant peril, and many Christians were arrested and executed. Worshipers who died for their faith were known as martyrs. Ironically, the campaigns of persecution, rather than destroying the new religion, only strengthened the resolve of the followers. Moreover, the bravery and dignity with which many of the martyrs perished often attracted new converts. Legalization and the Formal Organization of Christianity: In 313 C.E., legal status was granted to Christianity by the Edict of Milan, handed down by the emperor Constantine. In 380 C.E., Christianity was made the official religion of the Roman Empire, and in 392 C.E., it was proclaimed to be the empire’s only faith. Free from persecution, the church turned to questions of ecclesiastical organization, setting up a formal hierarchy of priests and bishops (by the fifth century C.E., the bishop of Rome, a position traditionally said to have been held by the apostle Peter, was becoming known as the pope). Only men could serve as clergy. The newly legalized church also found it necessary to establish a body of dogma, an officially agreed-upon set of beliefs. Important issues included the nature of Christ (considered to be both fully human and fully divine) and the doctrine of the Trinity (the belief that God has a triune nature, existing in the three persons of God the Father, Jesus Christ the Son, and the Holy Spirit). Beliefs that were not declared to be part of dogma were condemned as heresy [adherence to a religious opinion contrary to church dogma]. Another task was to decide which religious texts would be considered sacred. In this way, the books of the Christian Bible were compiled. The Bible consisted of two main parts: the Old Testament (containing the Hebrew Torah, stories from Jewish history, and the writings of Hebrew prophets) and the New Testament (comprised of the four Gospels, episodes from the history of the early Christian church, and letters written by the Apostles). Decisions about dogma and the Bible were made at a series of councils held during the 300s C.E. and afterward. The first of these was the Council of Nicaea, called by the emperor Constantine in the 320s C.E. and resulting in the Nicene Creed, a declaration of fundamental Christian beliefs. The priests and scholars who attended the councils or helped to clarify and defend the councils’ decisions are often referred to collectively as the church fathers. Among the most famous are Jerome (347 – 420 C.E.), whose Vulgate Bible was the first Latin translation of the holy book, and Augustine (354 – 430 C.E.), whose City of God is considered to have laid the intellectual foundation for the further development of Christian doctrine. Christianity after the Fall of the Roman Empire: With the collapse of the Roman Empire during the 400s C.E. came a new era for the Christian church. In Asia Minor, the Middle East, and North Africa, where the Roman legacy was carried on by the Byzantine Empire, metropolitan centers such as Antioch, Alexandria, and especially Constantinople were the great centers of Christian worship. In the west, where Europe was collapsing into political confusion and social breakdown, the headquarters of the Christian church was Rome. Although the Christian church called itself catholic, or universal, it was, in reality, deeply divided. Doctrinal disagreements, geographical separation, and the simple passage of time all caused the western and eastern churches to grow apart after the 500s C.E. By 1000 C.E., a rupture was imminent, and, in the Great Schism of 1054 C.E., the western and eastern churches broke with each other formally and permanently. Eastern Orthodoxy remained the faith of the Byzantine Empire, and it was the form of worship adopted by most Christians in the Middle East, the Russian lands, and much of eastern Europe. Roman Catholicism remained the favored form of Christianity in western Europe. During the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic Church became one of the most important institutions in Europe, providing Europeans with a sense of religious unity, preserving Latin manuscripts and texts from the Roman era, and exerting a tremendous sway over secular and political affairs. Further splits within the western Christian church would come later, during the 1500s and 1600s C.E. But, during the medieval era, its power and influence remained paramount. Movable-Type Printing Press: Another element in Europe’s remarkable cultural development during the early modern period was the invention of the movable-type printing press by the German printer Johannes Gutenberg in the 1430s. Almost single-handedly, the printing press – which spread throughout Europe, then elsewhere – was responsible for raising literacy rates, spreading information, increasing the impact of new ideas and scientific theories, and encouraging the expansion of libraries and universities. The spread of the Renaissance and Reformation increased due to the press. Constantly Risking Absurdity By Lawrence Ferlinghetti Constantly risking absurdity and death whenever he performs above the heads of his audience the poet like an acrobat climbs on rime to a high wire of his own making and balancing on eyebeams above a sea of faces paces his way to the other side of the day performing entrachats and sleight-of-foot tricks and other high theatrics and all without mistaking any thing for what it may not be For he's the super realist who must perforce perceive taut truth before the taking of each stance or step in his supposed advance toward that still higher perch where Beauty stands and waits with gravity to start her death-defying leap And he a little charleychaplin man who may or may not catch her fair eternal form spreadeagled in the empty air of existence