Download Geophysics 4th year Booklet 2013-14 - of /~pgres

UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH
School of GeoSciences
4th YEAR
HONOURS COURSES
in
GEOPHYSICS
and
GEOPHYSICS
with
METEOROLOGY
2013 - 2014
2
CONTENTS
1.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................ 3
2.
YEAR STRUCTURE ................................................................................................................... 4
2.1
2.2
3.
CORE COURSES ......................................................................................................... 4
OPTIONAL COURSES ............................................................................................... 4
EXAMINATIONS ........................................................................................................................ 6
3.1.
ADVICE ON THE AVOIDANCE OF PLAGIARISM ............................................... 6
4.
ASSESSMENT PROCESS ......................................................................................................... 6
5.
TUTORIALS ................................................................................................................................. 7
6.
PROJECT WORK ........................................................................................................................ 7
6.1
6.2
PLAGIARISM AND PROJECT WORK .................................................................... 8
SUBMISSION DEADLINES ...................................................................................... 8
7.
COMPUTING ............................................................................................................................... 9
8.
OTHER TRANSFERABLE SKILLS ....................................................................................... 9
9.
FIELDWORK ............................................................................................................................... 9
10.
WORK SPACE AND SOCIAL INTERACTIONS ............................................................... 9
11.
SEMINARS ................................................................................................................................ 9
12.
READING .................................................................................................................................10
13.
PROBLEMS .............................................................................................................................10
14.
COURSE MODIFICATION .................................................................................................11
SUMMARIES OF COMPULSORY COURSES .............................................................................12
CORE GEOPHYSICS COURSE SUMMARIES ............................................................................12
CORE GEOPHYSICS WITH METEOROLOGY COURSE SUMMARIES ...............................16
CLASS TIMETABLES 2013-2014
3
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
1.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
(i)
General geophysical knowledge
The taught material of Geophysics 4 and Geophysics with Meteorology 4 builds
selectively on the comprehensive coverage of solid Earth Geophysics given in the
second and third year Geophysics courses. You will find that the courses in fourth
year tend to go into greater depth than those in previous years. Even though the fourth
year does not aim to be as comprehensive in its coverage, you should maintain and
extend your general knowledge of geophysics (and Geology or Meteorology) through
background reading.
It is now also expected that you will attend all relevant research seminars from the
wide range available in the Grant Institute and Crew Building.
(ii)
In-depth exploration of selective techniques and problems
Geophysics (and Geology or Meteorology) courses in previous years provide building
blocks needed in order to attain a level of practising Geoscientists. Most course
components in the fourth year aim to provide the level of technical and fundamental
rigour required for professional Geophysical practice or research. With this
background, technical scientific literature should be accessible and understandable.
(iii)
Development of individual skills of organisation and analysis
The research projects fulfil an important part of the educational aims of the course:
they are an opportunity for you to work individually, planning and carrying out an
investigation unique to you, acquiring practical skills in computing, laboratory or
field work. You may do two 20-credit pojects, one in each semester, or one 40-credit
project spread across the whole year. You are required to prepare a written report on
each 20 credit project; the deadlines are at the beginning of S2 and the end of S2. For
40-credit projects you are required to produce an interim report at the start of S2. You
will be given feedback, but no marks, for this report; all the marks for a 40-credit
project are given on the final report. You will need to schedule the completion of
your work to meet these deadlines. A short seminar is given on one of your projects
during Innovative Learning Week. Planning your work, meeting deadlines, and
providing clear, structured communication of what you have achieved, are essential
skills for all kinds of employment. Note that if you choose to extend a 20-credit
project to 40 credits, or to curtail a 40-credit project to 20 credits (so that you can do
a separate 20 credit project in S2) then this decision must be taken before the end of
S1. You must ensure that you, the CO for projects (David Stevenson), the course
secretary and all supervisors involved understand the decision which you have made.
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2.
YEAR STRUCTURE
The basic course unit is a group of around 18 lectures, or what is judged to be
equivalent. The compulsory course units are:
2.1
CORE COURSES
For Geophysics students
Global Geophysics
Seismology
Geomagnetism
EASC10037
EASC10035
EASC10036
Exploration Seismology EASC10038
Transferable Skills for EASC10040
Geophysicists
Kathy Whaler
Ian Main & Andrew Curtis
Ciaran Beggan, Kathy Whaler &
Brian Hamilton
Mark Chapman
Andrew Curtis
For Geophysics with Meteorology students
Atmospheric Physics
METE10002 Richard Essery & David Stevenson
Atmospheric Dynamics METE10001 Ruth Doherty
Transferable Skills for EASC10040
Andrew Curtis
Geophysicists
2.2
OPTIONAL COURSES
These are selected from the following optional courses or from agreed courses given
in other degree programmes. For Semester 2 options, students are required to decide
upon their preferred options by the end of week 11 in Semester 1 and there will be a
formal procedure for notifying your choices. This procedure is required because
some courses, in other subject areas, have restrictions on the number of students that
can be accommodated.
All optional courses listed below are worth 10 credits.
Geophysics students require 30 credits of optional courses
Geophysics with Meteorology students require 50 credits of optional courses
Atmospheric Physics *
METE10002
Geomagnetism ‡
EASC10036
Seismology ‡
EASC10035
Three Dimensional
Climate Modelling
Hydrogeology 1:
Applied Hydrogeology
ENVI11002
EASC10082
Richard Essery & Semester 1, Tu & Fri
David Stevenson
14.10-15:00
Ciaran Beggan & Semester 1, Tu & Fri
Brian Hamilton
11.10-12.00
Ian Main and
Semester 1, M & Th
Andrew Curtis
11.10-12.00 Fri 9.0009.50
Simon Tett
Semester 1 Fri 10.0010.50
Chris McDermott
Semester 1, Fri 14.1017.00
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Atmospheric
Dynamics *
Geoscience Outreach
Projects
Global Geophysics ‡
METE10001
Ruth Doherty
Semester 1, M & Th
14.10-15.00
EASC10058
All year. Contact CO
re first meeting.
EASC10037 Kathy Whaler
Semester 2, Tu & Fr
10.00-10.50
Exploration
EASC10038 Mark Chapman
Semester 2,
Seismology ‡
Th 10.00 – 12.00 & F
9.00-9.50
Hydrocarbon Reservoir EASC10015 Stuart Haszeldine
Semester 2, M 10.00
Quality
– 15.50 (W1-4 only)
Topics In Global
EASC10022 Raja Ganeshram
Semester 2, Wed 9.00
Environmental Change
– 12.00
Frontiers in
EASC10070 Wyn Williams &
Semester 2, Wed
Geophysics
Jenny Tait
12.10-14.00
Physics of Climate**
METE10003 Gabi Hegerl
Semester 2, Tues &
Fri 14.00-14.50
Controlled source
EASC11003 Anton Ziolkowski
Semester 2, Wed
Electro-Magnetic
11.00-11.50 & Fri
(CSEM) Methods
12.10-13.00
Hydrogeology 2
EASC10077 Chris McDermott
Semester 2, Tues
14.10-17.00
Foundations of
PHYS09051 Luigi del Debbio
Semester 1, Tue &
§
Quantum Mechanics
Fri 9-9.50 Tutorial
Wednesday 9-10.50
§
Thermodynamics**
PHYS09021 Graeme Ackland
Semester 1, Mon and
Thurs
10-10.50
Tutorial 16.10-17.00
Mon OR Thur
Foundations of
PHYS09050 Martin Edwards
Semester 1, Tue & Fri
§
Electromagnetism
10-10.50am, Tutorial
Wed 11.10-13.00
** Optional for Geophysicists , unavailable for Geophysics & Meteorology
* Compulsory for the Geophysics with Meteorology students
‡ Compulsory for the Geophysics students
§Level 9 Physics course. You may only choose one (1) of these.
The Earth Science Options (other than the core Geophysics or Geophysics with
Meteorology courses) are detailed in a separate booklet available from the Undergraduate
Office. There is some information about all courses on the DRPS web site:
www.drps.ed.ac.uk
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3.
EXAMINATIONS
The regulations for assessment may be found on the University web pages at
http://www.ed.ac.uk/schools-departments/academic-services/staff/assessment/assessmentregulations
Geophysics 4 and Geophysics with Meteorology 4 core lecture courses have
traditionally been examined by conventional written examinations, at the end of the
year, however Atmospheric Physics, Atmospheric Dynamics and Geomagnetism will
be examined at end of Semester 1. Further details of the examination paper rubric are
normally distributed either within individual courses or in semester 2.
The optional courses are examined in various different ways. Options given as part
of the Geology Honours curriculum or in other Schools are often examined by
continuous assessment.
It is expected that our external examiner will interview most final year students.
These interviews are not absolutely compulsory, but most students wish to take part.
This will normally take place during the first week in June. Exact dates are yet to be
arranged, but you should ensure you are available in Edinburgh during that week.
The purpose of these interviews is twofold. Firstly it helps the examiner to assess the
overall quality of the class and the degree course. This means that the rank order of
grades cannot be modified by the examiner. Secondly the interview gives you a
chance to provide feedback on what you think are the good and bad aspects of the
degree. This feedback is invaluable as it allows us to alter the degree in future.
3.1.
ADVICE ON THE AVOIDANCE OF PLAGIARISM
Advice to students on the issue of plagiarism appears in the Student Handbook,
distributed to you separately, and Examination Regulations and Guidelines in the
University Calendar. Please be on your guard against copying, whether unconscious
or deliberate, and against requests for the use or borrowing of unsubmitted work by
other students. In group work, the preparation of the actual written submission for
assessment should be independent.
4.
ASSESSMENT PROCESS
Courses are assessed through theory papers as set out above. These test your
knowledge and understanding of the material covered in each 4th year course, and of
material covered in earlier years where this has been developed and applied in the 4th
year. They are also intended to examine the application of your understanding to
problem-based situations as well as basic physics and geology.
The two projects count 20 credits each, transferable skills counts 10 credits and the
seven compulsory courses and options have equal weighting of 10 credits, so making
up a total of 120. The 4th year marks contribute 50% to the final degree classification,
the other 50% being contributed by 3rd year marks.
The marking scheme used for projects can be found on the web at:
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https://www.geos.ed.ac.uk/undergraduate/courses/geophysics/gph4/students/
Grade Marking Criteria and General Descriptors for Honours Years are given
in a separate booklet.
5.
TUTORIALS
Whole group tutorials are assigned in both semesters. During the period after
lectures and project work has finished, revision tutorials will be arranged as needed.
The format of tutorials varies and some may involve going through set work or giving
seminars, but you should in any case take them as an opportunity to raise points of
difficulty you have found in lectures.
6.
PROJECT WORK
Each student is required to write two reports on project work done during the year. A
list of projects being offered is available here:
https://xweb.geos.ed.ac.uk/~dstevens/teaching/GP_Projects_2013-14.pdf
Different projects can be taken in the two semesters (20 credits each), or one double
project (40 credits) can be taken that spans both semesters. In either case two reports
must be handed in for assessment. This academic year these deadlines will be:
Tuesday 14 January 2014 (12 noon): first report or interim report for
whole year projects
Friday 4 April 2014 (12 noon): second or final report
Students are required to submit both a paper and electronic copy (on
LEARN – pdf format) of their reports.
Projects handed in late will be penalised. You should therefore plan to complete
projects at least a day or two in advance of the above dates, to allow for unforeseen
circumstances such as printer, photocopying or binding service breakdowns (these are
not valid excuses to waive late submission penalties). Any student who has problems
that prevent him or her from meeting a deadline must inform the course organiser
well in advance of the actual deadline so that the case can be assessed and a decision
made as to whether late submission penalties can be waived.
It is essential that you start project work promptly and that you work steadily
throughout the semester. In particular, students are responsible for ensuring that they
meet with the Supervisor at least once per week to discuss progress.
Project work should occupy about one and a half days a week - no more than 150
hours of actual work on each. For projects involving fieldwork, students may have to
work partly at weekends because of competition for use of equipment or vehicles.
Because they have to be posted to the external examiner for assessment please
conform to A4 format, for illustrations as well as text. Any other material for which
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A4 size is not appropriate can be written to USB key, or CD/DVD, and included in a
pocket at the back. Please ensure the reports are spiral bound - this service is
available through “The Copy Shop” in JCMB.
To provide feedback on your first project students are asked to give a short oral
presentation on their first project in the middle of the second semester in Innovative
Learning week. The purpose is to provide experience for the student but it is also
assessed (2 credits towards ‘Transferable Skills for Geophysicists). The normal
method of assessment is by peer-review.
All projects involve original research and results are therefore unpredictable to a
greater or lesser extent. You will not be unfairly penalised if the project fails to
generate the anticipated result or even any result at all, but it is essential to keep in
frequent touch with your supervisor so that your project can be amended if necessary.
6.1
PLAGIARISM AND PROJECT WORK
It is very important that all students understand the University’s rules about
plagiarism. Students sometimes break these rules unintentionally because they do not
realise that some of the ways in which they have incorporated other people’s work
into their own, before they came to this University, may be against the rules here.
Guidance on what constitutes plagiarism is provided in a separate booklet.
Plagiarism in connection with Geophysics project work is taken very seriously and
marks will be deducted for misconduct. In particular any computer code included in
project work not written by you should be clearly identified. Use of the www for
providing background reading to project work is strongly encouraged. But any text
downloaded and incorporated in a project report should be shown in italics or within
quotation marks and the www address given in the list of references.
Misconduct and Plagiarism links –
http://www.ed.ac.uk/schools-departments/academicservices/students/undergraduate/discipline/academic-misconduct
http://www.ed.ac.uk/schools-departments/academicservices/staff/discipline/plagiarism
6.2
SUBMISSION DEADLINES
The deadlines given in this booklet must be adhered to. The penalty for late
submission of material without prior explanation and agreement is 5% of the
maximum mark allocation per day for the first five days; the mark is reduced to zero
after 5 calendar days.
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7.
COMPUTING
Many projects involve a significant amount of computing and this practical
experience of using computers is a valuable part of the course which adds appreciably
to your skills base thereafter. Each student will be issued with a unique computer
password and user number for the central computer system as well as an identifier
and password for the Institute computers and network. (Note that the password and
user number on the central system are case sensitive).
8.
OTHER TRANSFERABLE SKILLS
Presentational Skills
In the Second Semester, you will present a 15 minute seminar on your first project (2
credits). This will take place during Innovative Learning Week (ILW).
9.
FIELDWORK
The field course to be held in week 3 of semester 1 forms the larger part of the course
EASC10040 “Transferable Skills for Geophysicists” (8 credits). The field course
assessment is normally made up of two equally weighted parts, worth 4 credits each:
1)
2)
10.
Individual work during the field course.
A 2-page (4 sides) written assessment covering the results of all the
techniques used on the field course.
WORK SPACE AND SOCIAL INTERACTIONS
Room 6201 in JCMB will double as workspace and the venue for most lectures, and
will be shared with Geophysics 3. Additional (but limited) study space is available in
the JCMB. Room 320 in the Grant Institute building will be made available
specifically for geophysics project work and should contain eight computers. (If your
project is done using Linux, these computers can be re-configured to run Linux
natively. Ask the IT staff if you require this.) Use of room 320 is a privilege which
you should not abuse. In particular, you are expected to keep the room tidy, not to
obstruct the cleaning staff (who have the keycode for the room and clean it every
week or two) and not to consume food or drink in the room.
The Grant Institute runs a do-it-yourself coffee club where tea, instant coffee
(including decaffeinated) and sometimes hot chocolate are available, served from the
pantry adjacent to the Museum. Traditionally, geophysicists (staff, postgraduates
and final year undergraduates) have gathered in the Museum for coffee at 1100
and 1600. We very much hope that this tradition will continue as it provides us all
with a continuing means of contact and interaction - you can usually find someone
there to offer advice on your computing problems or to listen to your complaints
about the course!
11.
SEMINARS
Many research seminars and colloquia take place throughout the School, and you
should look at the advertised programme for those of interest. Keep your eyes open
10
for notices about meetings, lectures and other events around the University, not only
in Geophysics.
12.
READING
Both general and specific reading is an essential part of any degree course. The main
geophysical library acquisitions are now housed in the nice new Noreen and Kenneth
Murray libary. Copies of most significant textbooks are held there but please be
considerate in your borrowing. The university has on-line subscriptions to many
journals but you will sometimes need to go and find the paper copy of a journal
article. The journal stacks are in the KB Library Store in the Darwin building. A few
geophysical journals are held in various other University and public libraries in
Edinburgh. A further selection can be consulted in the library of the British
Geological Survey, Murchison House. The following link will direct to University
library website for up-to-date information.
http://www.ed.ac.uk/schools-departments/information-services/library-museumgallery
Appropriate specific reading material will be suggested by individual lecturers during
their courses but there are several good books which cover most of the field of global
geophysics at a reasonably elementary level. We think that you might reasonably be
expected to know their contents by the end of the course, even if every topic is not
specifically covered in lectures.
Try to keep up with as broad a range of science as possible: browse through New
Scientist or Scientific American when possible.
General Reading List
"Fundamentals of Geophysics", W. Lowrie, C.U.P. 1997 (or 2nd edition 2007).
"Physics of the Earth", Stacey, FD and Davis, PM , C U P (4th Edition 2008)
"The Solid Earth: An Introduction to Global Geophysics", C.M.R. Fowler, C.U.P.
13.
PROBLEMS
The Geophysics degree programme undergoes continual development, although for
the most part the programme follows well-established lines. Nevertheless, problems
of content and level are bound to occur in lectures, although we do, of course, try to
avoid them. Please do not hesitate to raise points of difficulty when they occur: we
are only too glad to try to sort out problems and get feedback, then and at other times.
Try particularly hard to stay with the courses in the first half of the first semester,
where some of you will find the mathematical content a shock to the system - it does
become intelligible eventually!
Any general problems of course organisation or content can be raised with the Course
Organiser in the first instance. The undergraduate Secretary, Katie Leith, Room 332
in the Grant Institute tel: 650 8510, email: [email protected], can relay messages
11
to staff if you have difficulty finding them. If you are phoning from inside the
University, dial the last 6 digits only, i.e. 508510.
14.
COURSE MODIFICATION
This is a warning of the kind 'The manufacturers reserve the right to replace without
notice the goods illustrated by ones of equal quality'. The following pages give
details of the content of the courses making up the Geophysics senior honours year.
Many are continuously revised and this process is now being accelerated by the more
general modifications of University and School administration and degree structures.
While we have done our best to include the latest changes, course contents may not
be identical to these summaries.
12
SUMMARIES OF COMPULSORY COURSES
The Enterprise Initiative sessions, field course and project presentation are
compulsory and are formally assessed.
CORE GEOPHYSICS COURSE SUMMARIES
(optional for Geophyics with Meteorology students)
SEISMOLOGY
Ian Main and Andrew Curtis
Part I: Wave Theory
Fundamentals of wave motion; seismic wave types. Stress tensor, strain tensor,
stress-strain relations; linearised equations of motion; elastic moduli.
The wave equation: dilatational and rotational solutions; separation of variables;
plane and spherical waves.
Reflection and refraction of plane waves at a plane boundary; independence of SH
and P and of SV waves; boundary conditions; P, SV and SH waves incident at the
free surface of a homogeneous half-space and at general interfaces; energy
conversions.
Rayleigh waves for a homogeneous half-space; Love waves for a two-layer halfspace. Superposition of plane waves, group velocity, dispersion. Free oscillations,
toroidal and spheroidal modes.
Part II: Earthquake Seismology
1.
Introduction to Earthquake Seismology
An example from a recent event.
2.
The Earthquake Source:
Focal mechanisms, moment tensors, source time function.
3.
Earthquake Mechanics:
Friction and fracture, populations, dynamics, scaling.
4.
Seismic Recording:
Sensors, recorders, networks and arrays.
5.
Seismograms:
Natural and synthetic, time and frequency domain, combined influence of source, ray
path, recording site and instrument.
6.
Earthquake Location:
Ray parameters (arrays) and the Geiger method (networks).
7.
Global Earth Structure:
Layered structure from travel time tables, 3D structure from seismic tomography.
8.
Seismotectonics:
Distribution of seismicity in space, regional stress and strain tensors, relationship to
tectonics.
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9.
Seismic Hazard:
Time-independent and time-dependent, can we predict individual earthquakes?
Guest Lecture/Practical on 14th November 2013 1-5pm in Crew 301
Recommended Reading
Shearer, P.M. (1999) Introduction to seismology, Cambridge University Press.
Stein, S. & Wysession, M. (2003). An introduction to seismology, earthquakes and
earth structure, Blackwells.
GEOMAGNETISM
Ciaran Beggan, Kathy Whaler & Brian Hamilton
1.
The spatial and temporal characteristics of the geomagnetic field:
Introduction: sources of magnetic data; representation of the field in terms of a scalar
potential; spherical harmonic functions.
Internal/external fields: spherical harmonic analysis; the IGRF/DGRF; the geocentric
dipole and non-dipole field; source spectrum.
Introduction to time variations of the internal field and sources of data: Observatory
records; secular variation; magnetic properties of rocks; paleomagnetism;
archaeomagnetism; lake sediment records; normal and reversed NRM; field reversal;
the reversal time-scale; lava flows; deep ocean sediments; marine magnetic
anomalies; ancient field.
2.
Theories of the origin of the geomagnetic field:
Theories of the origin of Earth's magnetic field: self-sustaining fields and the disk
dynamo.
Maxwell's
equations; the quasi-static approximation; application of
magnetohydrodynamics to the core; diffusion and Alfven’s ‘frozen-flux’
approximation; the magnetic Reynolds number.
Dynamo theory; the  and  effects; the kinematic dynamo problem and solutions.
Navier-Stokes equation; steady slow motion solution; the Proudman-Taylor theorem;
weak and strong field dynamos.
Energy sources for the geomagnetic dynamo; the time-dependent disk dynamo;
coupled disk dynamo; numerical modelling of the geodynamo.
3.
The Solar Atmosphere and the Solar Wind:
Solar wind theory; Parker’s model of solar wind formation; the Solar magnetic field;
interaction of the solar wind and the geomagnetic field.
4.
Applications of Geomagnetism:
Investigating the Earth’s conductivity structure; understanding the risk posed to
power distribution networks, pipelines and communications by geomagnetic activity;
hydrocarbon exploration and production; the ELF spectrum and global lightning.
14
Recommended Reading
Campbell, W.H. “Introduction to Geomagnetic Fields (2nd Edition)”, Cambridge
University Press, 2003. An elementary, but readable, introduction to geomagnetism.
Kivelson, M.G. and Russell, C.T. “Introduction to Space Physics”, Cambridge
University Press, 1995. A useful reference text for the third section of the course.
Merill, R.T., McElhinny, M.W. and McFadden, P.L. “The Magnetic Field of the
Earth – Paleomagnetism; the Core and the Deep Mantle.” Academic Press, 1996.
Covers most of the first two sections of the course.
Parkinson, W.D., Introduction to Geomagnetism, Scottish Academic Press, 1983.
This is useful for most parts of the course. Although this book is out of print, it is
available from the university library.
GLOBAL GEOPHYSICS
Kathy Whaler
1.
Potential theory:
Surface and solid harmonics, orthogonality and normalisation. Laplace's Equation in
spherical polar and cylindrical co-ordinates; properties, examples and geometry of
spherical harmonics; series expansions and the inverse distance 1/|r1 - r2|;
McCullagh's formula.
2.
Gravity anomalies and the geoid:
Theory and concepts of the reference potential, the reference surface and normal
gravity; the anomalous potential, gravity anomalies and the geoid. International
Gravity Formulae.
3.
Core dynamics:
Navier-Stokes equation; non-dimensional numbers; torsional osciallations and waves
in the core; core oscillations and nutations; inner core super-rotation. Link to
geomagnetism.
4.
Core-mantle boundary:
D'' - what is it?; thermal and compositional structure; the post-perovskite phase.
Core-mantle coupling.
5.
Mantle rheology:
Deformation mechanisms; direct evidence; laboratory experiments; numerical
experiments.
6.
Structure of the crust and lithosphere:
Receiver function analysis and other methods.
15
Recommended Reading
"Potential Theory in Gravity and Magnetic Applications", Blakely, R., C.U.P.
"Theory of the Earth", Don Anderson, Blackwell Science Inc., 1989.
"Introduction to Seismology", Peter M. Shearer, Cambridge University Press, 1999.
"The Earth's Mantle", Ian Jackson (ed), Cambridge University Press, 2000.
“The Earth’s Core”, J.A. Jacobs, Academic Press, 1987.
“Geodynamics”, Donald L. Turcotte and Gerald Schubert, Cambridge University
Press, 2002 (2nd Edition)
“The Solid Earth: An Introduction to Global Geophysics", C.M.R. Fowler, C.U.P.
EXPLORATION SEISMOLOGY
Andrew Curtis
This course introduces seismic data acquisition, processing and interpretation
methodologies.
Exploration Seismology
The first part of the course takes you to state-of-the art research level in three topics
of active current interest in Exploration Seismology. For each topic lectures will
prepare you with necessary concepts and terminology, after which we will read
several research papers and analyse them in class. The topics are as follows:
1.
Designing Geophysical surveys from both theoretical and practical points of view
2.
Enhancing signal-to-noise ratios: removing multiples from seismic data
3.
Tomographic subsurface imaging
At the end of the course you will have an appreciation of the steps taken from seismic
exploration data acquisition to geological interpretation for refractions, reflections
and borehole seismic data.
Recommended Reading
"Introduction to Geophysical Exploration", 3rd edition, by P Kearey, M Brooks & I A
Hill
"Practical Seismic Interpretation", Badley, M.E.
"Exploration Seismology", 2nd edition, 1995.
Cambridge University Press.
Sheriff, R.E. and Geldart, L.P,
Introduction to Geophysical Prospecting, 4th edition, M B Dobrin & C H Savit
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CORE GEOPHYSICS WITH METEOROLOGY COURSE SUMMARIES
(optional for Geophysics students)
ATMOSPHERIC PHYSICS
David Stevenson & Richard Essery
This course uses basic fluid dynamics, thermodynamics and turbulence theory to explore the
structure of the atmospheric boundary layer, the formation of clouds and precipitation, and
the life cycle of atmospheric aerosols, including their impacts on air quality, radiation and
climate. Some knowledge of algebra, calculus and statistics will be assumed, at the level
already attained by students in the 4th year of Geophysics or Physics degrees.
The Course Team
Lectures are delivered and tutorial classes are led by David Stevenson (Course Organizer,
[email protected]) and Richard Essery ([email protected]) of the
School
of
GeoSciences.
The
Course
Secretary
is
Meredith
Corey
([email protected]).
Schedule
Lectures are 14:00 – 14:50 in Swann 7.20 on Tuesdays and Fridays.
Tuesday
Friday
September 17
September 20
Week 1
Introduction and overview
Boundary layer turbulence
Week 2
September 24
Atmospheric thermodynamics
September 27
Buoyancy and stability
Week 3*
Week 5
October 1
Cloud microphysics
October8
Boundary layer winds
October 15
Tutorial class
October 4
Precipitation development
October 11
Surface energy balance
October 18
Boundary layer evolution
Week 6
October 22
Experimental and numerical methods
October 25
Tutorial class
Week 7
October 28
Life cycle of atmospheric aerosols
Week 8
November 5
Aerosols and radiation
November 1
Simple models of global atmospheric
composition
November 8
Tutorial class
Week 9
November 12
Aerosol size distributions
November 15
Aerosols and air quality
Week 10
November 19
Aerosols, clouds and climate
November 22
Tutorial/Review
Week 4
*NB lectures from week 3 will be recorded
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Background reading
Atmospheric Science by Wallace and Hobbs contains a lot of useful material for this and
other level 10 meteorology courses; we will refer particularly to chapters 3, 4, 5, 6 and 9.
Boundary Layer Climates (Oke) is a good qualitative overview, not quite at the
mathematical level of this course, whereas Boundary Layer Meteorology (Stull) and The
Atmospheric Boundary Layer (Garratt) are more advanced texts.
For the latter part of the course covering aerosols, chapters 3 and 8 of Introduction to
Atmospheric Chemistry (Jacob) are very useful; and there is more detail in Atmospheric
Chemistry and Physics (Seinfeld and Pandis) (both these books are available free on-line
(see https://www.geos.ed.ac.uk/homes/dstevens/TeachingMaterials.html).
Copies of all of these books are held in the library. Some selected book chapters and classic
papers on particular subjects will also be posted on WebCT.
Assessment
The course is mainly (90%) assessed by a 2-hour exam in the December examination diet
(date to be announced). There will be three questions, of which two should be answered; the
highest two marks are counted if all three questions are attempted. A calculator will be
required, and has to be one of the models approved for use in exams by the College of
Science and Engineering: Casio fx82, fx83 or fx85. The remaining 10% of assessment is
divided equally between two sets of tutorial questions to hand-in, around weeks 4 and 9 of
the course.
Past papers can be found at online in the library, under School of GeoSciences/Meteorology,
but please be aware that the content of the course has changed slightly from year to year.
ATMOSPHERIC DYNAMICS
Ruth Doherty
Aims: This course aims to give an overview of the dynamics of the Earth’s atmosphere.
Synopsis
This course introduces the fundamentals which govern atmospheric circulation including
forces, steady and unsteady flows, vorticity, and wave motions in the tropics and midlatitudes. Meteorological charts and data will be used to illustrate synoptic patterns and large
scale flow as well as phenomena such as cyclones, jetstreams and ENSO (El Niño Southern
Oscillation).
Lectures 1-2: Overview and vertical structure
Hydrostatic equilibrium in the atmosphere. Potential temperature and its relevance to the
vertical stability of a compressible atmosphere.
Lectures 3-4: Equations of motion for a rotating Earth
The Navier-Stokes equations for an inertial frame of reference of a compressible fluid
based on Newton's first law of motion and the conservation of mass. The Navier-Stokes
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equations for a frame of reference rotating with the earth. Approximations for large-scale
flow. Configuration of forces.
Lectures 5-8: Synoptic-scale approximations and frictional forces
The order of magnitude of forces and accelerations present in synoptic-scale weather
patterns. Geostrophic and thermal wind approximations. Estimates of winds in synopticscale systems from pressure and temperature gradients. Mean and eddy flow. Wind variation
with height due to frictional forces in the boundary layer.
Lectures 9-10: Tropical and mid-latitude circulations
The experimental evidence from "rotating dishpan" experiments that degree of departure
from zonal symmetry depends on rotation rate and horizontal temperature gradients. Axisymetric flow and conservation of angular momentum. Meridional circulations in the tropics
and their relation to the sub-tropical jet.
Lectures 11-13: Vorticity and Divergence
Vorticity and divergence definitions for meteorology. Linking divergence and vertical
velocity Potential vorticity and its usefulness as tool for understanding fluid motion.
Lectures: 14-16: Rossby wave and cyclone models
The motivation for and limitations of atmospheric wave motion as a perturbation from a
basic flow. Barotropic and baroclinic conditions. Mid-latitude planetary-scale waves and the
Eady model of mid-latitude cyclone growth. Climate change effects on mid-latitude storm
behaviour.
Recommended texts:
Lynch and Cassano, Applied Atmospheric Dynamics, Wiley, 2006
Atmosphere, Ocean and Climate Dynamics, Marshall and Plumb, 2008
Mid-latitude Atmospheric dynamics, Martin, 2006
Wallace and Hobbs, Atmospheric Science: An Introductory Survey, Academic Press, 2006
IPCC, Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis (www.ipcc.ch)
PHYSICS OF CLIMATE
Gabi Hegerl
Synopsis
The course introduces the principal physics of climate and climate modelling, focussing on
the Earth. The climate system is so complex that we approach it by constructing models with
several different levels of complexity. These models allow us to explain the observed
distribution of temperature, in relation to the fluxes of energy and matter through the climate
system, and to consider the external and internal factors (both human and natural) which
cause climatic change and variability. The course also briefly covers other climate variables,
such as precipitation, and understanding of pasts and predicting of future climate change.
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Learning outcomes
Upon successful completion of the course a student will have a comprehensive and
integrated knowledge of the principal physics of climate and climate modelling. They will
be able to:
View the climate systems as one which, although it is far too complex to represent exactly
in mathematical terms, may nevertheless be modelled using physical principles.
Be able to describe the various types of principal and some specialised climate models
and understand the uses and limitations of each type. Specifically the student should be
familiar with:
 zero-dimensional energy-balance models, zonal energy balance models, and timedependent energy balance models
 one-dimensional radiative-convective models of the atmosphere,
 general circulation models and;
 the components of earth system models
Interpret, use and evaluate a wide range of numerical and graphical data
Understand the meaning of the term ‘Climate sensitivity’, and be aware of available
evidence for its magnitude
Understand and predict the timescales of seasonal changes in climate, and climate change
Understand how radiation travels through the atmosphere and how it is absorbed and
emitted
Explain how the atmosphere causes the greenhouse effect
Explain the principles of a general circulation model of the atmosphere and understand
what use may be made of such a model, including for understanding of
palaeoclimates and the prediction of anthropogenic climate change
Students will also:
Be familiar with climate history from millennia to recent decades, and have a broad
understanding of the causes of change
Understand the origin of predictions of future climate change and their uncertainty
Be aware of how understanding and knowledge in this subject are developed
Assessment – 20% minipresentation, 80% exam
Suggested reading:
The course is not oriented on a single book, but Hartmann, McGuffie and Andrews covers a
fair bit of the material. The book by Peixoto & Oort is an excellent alternative if a fairly
mathematical treatment suits you. Salby is an alternative to Andrews’ text for atmospheric
physics. All the atmospheric physics texts go outside the scope of this course.
D. L. Hartmann (1994): Global Physical Climatology. Academic Press. Vol 56 in their
International Geophysics series, 411 pp. I am using this for my own preparation in addition
to my Predecessor’s material (Hugh Pumphrey) who may have used Taylor more.
20
Taylor, F. (2005): Elementary Climate Physics, Excellent introduction, although pitched at
3rd rather than 4th year. One copy in JCML, you may have to order it from the bookshop.
The ISBN is 0 19 856733 2 (hardback) 0 19 856734 0 (paperback)
Andrews, D. (2000): Introduction to Atmospheric Physics, Cambridge University Press.
Excellent short accounts of radiation and atmospheric physics, and some climate
perspectives. In JCML.
Peixoto, J. and Oort, A. (1992): Physics of Climate, AIP. Comprehensive and lucid account
of climate physics, with strong emphases on real world observations and rigorous
mathematical treatment. Two copies in JCML.
Salby, M. (1995): Fundamentals of Atmospheric Physics, Academic Press. A very well
presented account. In JCML.
Further Reading
McGuffie and Henderson-Sellers (2005): A Climate Modelling Primer, John Wiley & Sons.
Good on the principles of climate modelling, but a little light on the physics. New books are
3rd ed. Several copies of 2nd edition in JCML.
Wallace, J. M and Hobbs, P (2006): Atmospheric Science. Academic Press. Not same
emphasis as in lectures but very well done and lots of relevant material
Trenberth, K. (1992): Climate system modeling, Cambridge University Press.
Nicely presented reference work on modelling. In JCML.
IPCC (2007): Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis. Full text at
http://www.ipcc.ch/ Detailed (~1000 pages) discussion of climate processes, modelling
approaches & problems, in 11 well organized chapters. Excellent for state of science, but
doesn’t provide background.
CONTROLLED SOURCE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC (CSEM) METHODS
Anton Ziolkowski
The course is based on the development of the multi-transient electromagnetic (MTEM)
method since 1991. The method was commercialized by the University of Edinburgh
spinout company MTEM Limited, founded in 2004 and subsequently bought by PGS in
2007. Anton Ziolkowski was co-founder and Technical Director of MTEM Limited, and
Chief Scientist, Geoscience and Engineering, in PGS until March 2010. Much of what is
covered is not yet in textbooks, but some of it is in journal publications. References to the
relevant journal publications will be provided.
SUMMARY OF INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Electromagnetic methods may be divided into two categories: passive
electromagnetics, typically magnetotellurics (MT), and active EM, including DC
resistivity and controlled source electromagnetics (CSEM).
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 CSEM is complementary to seismic exploration: seismic exploration yields
subsurface geological structure; CSEM yields information about fluids in the rocks;
the replacement of salt water by hydrocarbons can increase the rock resistivity by
orders of magnitude. The EM source is a current dipole; the receiver at any position
consists of a combination of dipoles and coils that measure the electric and magnetic
fields.
 EM propagation in conducting media is lossy and diffusive, whereas seismic wave
propagation is essentially lossless and obeys the wave equation. The EM skin effect
is a serious impediment to the resolution of small targets at depth.
 Ray theory and seismic data processing procedures are not applicable to diffusive
CSEM data.
 There is no agreement in the CSEM industry (as compared with the seismic industry)
on how to acquire, process, and invert CSEM data for optimum definition of
subsurface resistivities.
 The two main CSEM methods are distinguished primarily by the method of source
control: conventional CSEM uses a continuous source signal containing a small
number of discrete frequencies; transient CSEM, including MTEM uses a broadbandwidth transient source time function and acquisition principles similar to seismic
reflection.
 Conventional CSEM data acquisition and processing evolved from magnetotellurics;
transient CSEM, including MTEM, is operationally similar to seismic reflection and
uses the concept of impulse response, or Green’s function.
 Both methods are limited by systematic errors, including positioning, and by noise,
which is both cultural and naturally occurring. MT signals are noise for CSEM.
 The interface with the air has a profound effect on the interpretability of land and
marine CSEM data. The EM propagation in air is essentially loss-free, obeying the
wave equation and carrying the energy at the speed of light.
 There is an important analytical function for the response of an impulsive point
dipole current source at the surface of a conducting half-space. This function may be
expressed in dimensionless time, leading to estimates of amplitude decay and length
of time response as a function of source-receiver separation, and allowing the data
acquisition parameters to be estimated if the resistivity of the subsurface is known.
 The ‘air wave’ in land CSEM appears as an impulse at zero time in the Green’s
function of a surface receiver, making it very easy to handle with the MTEM method.
 Subsurface resistivities are currently obtained by inversion; that is, a subsurface
resistivity model of the earth is found whose electromagnetic response is, in some
sense, a best fit to the measured data. For conventional CSEM this is done frequency
by frequency; for transient CSEM this is done in the time domain using the Green’s
functions, or impulse responses.
COURSE OUTLINE
1. Overview
2. Introduction to EM and its role in the petroleum industry
Ohm’s Law and resistivity;
Role of fluids;
Resistivity, hydrocarbon saturation and Archie’s law;
Passive and active EM;
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Direct current (DC) resistivity measurements
Seismic and EM propagation: waves and diffusion
Fourier Theory
Fourier transform
Two-dimensional Fourier transform
Resolution and bandwidth
Similarity theorem
Impulse function (  )
Impulse response
Linear filters and convolution
Convolution theorem
Derivative theorem
Wavefield transformation
Electromagnetic Waves
Maxwell’s equations
Constitutive relations
Electromagnetic wave equations
Transformation of the wave equations to the frequency domain
Plane wave solutions of the electromagnetic wave equation, skin depth
Electromagnetic wave propagation in air and free space
Electromagnetic propagation in conducting media: diffusion equation
Point electric dipole source in an unbounded medium
Boundary conditions
Point electric dipole source on the surface of a half-space
Passive electromagnetics
The magnetotelluric (MT) method
The MT receiver
Overview of controlled source electromagnetic (CSEM) methods
Conventional marine CSEM
The evolution of marine CSEM
Conventional land CSEM: LOTEM
Response to an impulsive source of current on land – the air wave
Response to an impulsive source of current in sea water
The MTEM method
Sources of electromagnetic noise
Interpretation of CSEM data
Source control in CSEM
The convolutional model in CSEM
Source control and the source time function
Pseudo-random binary sequence (PRBS)
Response to a transient input signal
Square-wave function
Comparison of PRBS and square wave theory
Comparison of PRBS and square wave marine CSEM data
Signature deconvolution theory
Signature deconvolution applied to a whole line of marine PRBS data
Frequency response functions of PRBS and square-wave data
Deconvolution gain
Conventional marine CSEM data acquisition and processing
Introduction
Positioning
Clock drift
Acquisition geometries
Data pre-processing
Source normalization
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Determination of rotation angle
Determination of amplitude and phase
ExxonMobil examples
9. Land MTEM data acquisition and processing
The impulse response and time to the peak
The impulse response in dimensionless time
Frequency domain response
Variation of response with time and offset
Bandwidth of recording
Frequency bandwidth of MTEM with other methods
Signal-to-noise ratio of MTEM data
Maximising signal
Minimizing noise: attenuation of cultural noise by polarity reversals
Minimizing noise: attenuation of cultural noise by filtering
Minimizing the noise: attenuation of cultural noise using additional cross-line
measurements
Land data example: 2007 Geophysics paper by Ziolkowski, Hobbs and Wright
Estimating resistivities from travel-time data.
10. Marine MTEM data acquisition and processing
Data acquisition using ocean-bottom cable (OBC)
Typical setup, Harding data example
Harding field
Data acquisition
Positioning repeatability errors
Optimization of source signal parameters
Frequency domain deconvolution
Offset correction
Spatially-correlated noise removal
Repeatability
MTEM marine data
11. Effect of the water layer on marine CSEM data
Electrical conductivity of sea water
Double half-space response: air-water system
Air-water-earth half-space system: multiples
Air wave attenuation for transient EM
The air wave and conventional CSEM
12. Modelling and inversion to determine resistivities
The problem
Inversion as iterative forward modelling
1-D forward modeling
3-D forward modeling
3-D time-lapse model building – Harding example
3-D forward modelining and 1-D inversion – Harding example
3D inversion of 3-D data including anisotropy - Troll field example
Quantification of misfit: data and model weighting
References
Textbooks
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Griffiths, David, 1999, Introduction to electrodynamics: Prentice Hall International.
Bracewell, Ron. N, 1999, The Fourier transform and its applications: McGraw-Hill.
Both books are excellent.
Year 4 Semester 1
Geophysics, Geophysics & Meteorology
0900-0950
1000-1050
Mon
Tues
1110-1200
1210-1300
1400-1450
Seismology †
(Lab 6201)
Geomagnetism †
(Lab 6201)
Atmospheric
Dynamics ††
Atmospheric
Physics ††
Seismology †
(Lab 6201)
Geomagnetism †
(Lab 6201)
Atmospheric
Dynamics ††
Atmospheric
Physics ††
Wed
Thur
Fri
Seismology †
(wks 1-11)
(Lab 6201)
† Compulsory for Geophysics
†† Compulsory for Geophsics & Meterology
Introductory Meeting – Thursday 12th September 11am in the Museum
Week 3 – Fieldtrip to Germany 28 Sept – 5 Oct 2012
Project Hand In Date: 14th January 2014
Options: (Note that only one level 9 physics option may be taken in the 4 th year)
Geoscience Outreach Projects (no timetable)
Hydrogeology 1: Applied Hydrogeoleogy
Fundamentals of Electromagnetism
Fundamentals of Quantum Mechanics
Thermodynamics (Geophysics only)
Fluid Mechanics 4
Intro to 3-D Climate modelling
)
1500-1550
1600-1650
26
Year 4 Semester 2
Geophysics, Geophysics & Meteorology
0900-0950
1000-1050
1110-1200
1210-1300
Mon
Tues
Global Geophysics
(Lab 6201)
Wed
Thur
Fri
Exploration
Seismology †
(Lab 6201)
Exploration
Seismology †
(Lab 6201)
Global Geophysics
(Lab 6201)
Exploration
Seismology †
(Lab 6201)
† Compulsory for Geophysics
Project Hand in Date: 4th April 2014 (12 noon)
Innovative Learning Week - Mon 17-21 February 2014
Suggested Options to look at: (Note that only one level 9 physics option may be taken in the 4th year)
Physics of Climate (Geophysics only)
Controlled Source Electromagnetism
Hyperspectral remote sensing
Frontiers in Geophysics
Hydrogeology 2
Introduction to Radar Remote Sensing
Hydrocarbon Reservoir Quality
Physics of Climate
Topics in Global Environmental Change
Earth Surface Processes
Marine Systems and Policies
1400-1450
1500-1550
1600-1650