Download AK - KISS Grammar

KISS Grammar
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Free, from the KISS Grammar Web Site
KISSGrammar.org
This book contains some suggestions for teaching KISS Level Two and the analysis keys for
the exercises. The keys in this book have been numbered to match the students’ workbook. Note
that in the printable books, instructional materials (and special notes for teachers) appear in green
text in the table of contents.
© Ed Vavra
Nov. 1, 2012
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Contents
Exercises in brackets have no analysis keys.
IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn ffoorr T
Teeaacchheerrss aanndd PPaarreennttss ....................................................................................................................... 33
Applying KISS to Students’ Own Reading and Writing ................................................................... 5
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KIISSSS L
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Thhee C
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mpplleexxiittiieess ooff SS//V
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C PPaatttteerrnnss......................................................... 55
KISS Level 2.1.1. - Understood “You” – Notes for Teachers ........................................................... 5
Ex. 1 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri ............................................................................ 6
Ex. 2 - If My Dog Could Teach Me .............................................................................. 7
KISS Level 2. 1. 2 - Varied Positions in the S/V/C Pattern – Notes for Teachers ............................ 9
Ex. 1 – From Lassie, Come Home by Eric Knight ...................................................... 10
Ex. 2 - From “Clytie, the Heliotrope” ......................................................................... 11
KISS Level 2. 1. 3 - Expletives (Optional) – Notes for Teachers ................................................... 11
Ex. 1 - From Lassie, Come Home by Eric Knight ....................................................... 12
Ex. 2 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri .......................................................................... 12
KISS Level 2. 1. 4 - Palimpsest Patterns – Notes for Teachers....................................................... 14
Ex. 1 – From Lassie, Come Home by Eric Knight ...................................................... 15
Ex. 2 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri .......................................................................... 16
KISS Level 2. 1. 5 - Phrasal Verbs – Notes forTeachers ................................................................ 17
Ex. 1 - From the Writing of Sixth Graders .................................................................. 19
Ex. 2 – From Lassie, Come Home by Eric Knight ...................................................... 21
Ex. 3 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri .......................................................................... 22
KISS Level 2. 1. 6 - Distinguishing Finite Verbs from Verbals...................................................... 23
Important Notes for Teachers! ........................................................................................ 23
Ex. 1 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri .......................................................................... 27
Ex. 2 – From “Jack and His Golden Box” ................................................................... 29
Ex. 3 - From Stories of Robin Hood Told to the Children........................................... 30
Ex. 4.a. - From the Writing of a Sixth Grader ............................................................. 32
Ex. 4.b. - Based on “Perseus” by Charles Kingsley .................................................... 34
Ex. 5 - The Night Watch by Rembrandt Van Rijn ....................................................... 36
Ex. 6 - Just for Fun – Shooting Oneself ...................................................................... 38
KISS Level 2.1.7 - The Subjunctive Mood ..................................................................................... 39
The KISS Perspective on the Subjunctive Mood ............................................................ 39
Ex. 1 - From Lassie, Come Home by Eric Knight ....................................................... 40
Ex. 2 - From At the Back of the North Wind by George Macdonald ........................... 41
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mpplleexxiittiieess ooff PPrreeppoossiittiioonnaall PPhhrraasseess................................................................. 4444
KISS Level 2. 2. 1. The “To” Problem & Verbs as Objects of Prepositions................................... 44
Notes for Teachers .......................................................................................................... 44
Ex. 1.a. - Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell ..................................................... 47
Ex. 1.b. - Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell ..................................................... 48
Ex. 2 - Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell ......................................................... 50
KISS Level 2.2.2 - Preposition (or Subordinate Conjunction)? ...................................................... 52
Notes for Teachers .......................................................................................................... 52
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Ex. 1 - Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell ........................................................ 52
Ex. 2 - From At the Back of the North Wind by George Macdonald ........................... 53
KISS Level 2. 2. 3 - Embedded Prepositional Phrases .................................................................... 55
Notes for Teachers .......................................................................................................... 55
Ex. 1.a - Based on Introductory Lessons in English Grammar ................................... 56
Ex. 1.b. - From Lassie, Come Home by Eric Knight ................................................... 57
Ex. 1.c. - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri ...................................................................... 58
Ex. 2.a. - A Passage for Analysis—The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag .................. 59
Ex. 2.b. - From Andrew Lang’s “Toads and Diamonds” ............................................ 59
KISS Level 2. 2.4 - Prepositional Phrases - Advanced Questions .................................................. 61
Notes for Teachers .......................................................................................................... 61
Ex. 1 - Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell ......................................................... 62
Ex. 2 - Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell ......................................................... 64
Ex. 3 - Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell ......................................................... 65
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Coonnssttrruuccttiioonnss ....................................................................... 6655
Notes for Teachers .......................................................................................................... 65
Ex. 1 - Nouns Used as Adverbs From Heidi by Johanna Spyri................................... 67
Interjections—Notes for Parents and Teachers ............................................................... 68
Ex. 2 - Interjections from Heidi by Johanna Spyri ...................................................... 70
Ex. 3 - The Punctuation of Interjections: From Growth in English ............................ 71
Ex. 4 - Direct Address from At the Back of the North Wind ....................................... 72
Ex. 5 - Adapted from Voyages in English - Fifth Year................................................ 73
Ex. 6 - Mixed from The Secret Garden by Frances Hodgson Burnett ........................ 74
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Appppeennddiixx............................................................................................................................................................................................... 7755
The KISS Grammar Toolbox .......................................................................................................... 75
Using the KISS Analysis Keys ........................................................................................................ 77
Creating Directions for Your Students ............................................................................................ 78
IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn ffoorr T
Teeaacchheerrss aanndd PPaarreennttss
The study of grammar is a science.
The teaching of grammar is an art.
As you will see, this workbook expands students’ understanding of the basic concepts
covered in Level One. Some of the concepts presented here are covered in most grammar
textbooks. Others, such as “Palimpsest Patterns” may be exclusive to the KISS Approach.
Many of the concepts are relatively easy for students to understand, but some are more
important than others. For example, KISS Level 2.1.6—“Distinguishing Finite Verbs from
Verbals” is very important preparation for KISS Level Three—clauses. A clause is a subject /
(finite) verb / complement pattern. Students who cannot distinguish finite verbs from verbals will
therefore have serious difficulties in KISS Level Three. KISS Level 2.2.1—“The ‘To’ Problem
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and Verbals as Objects of Prepositions” deals with basically the same problem, but from the
perspective of prepositional phrases.
You may want to skip (and come back to) two of the sub-levels in this book. At this point in
their work, KISS Level 2.1.7—“The Subjunctive Mood” is more important for teachers than it is
for students. Its basic objective is to emphasize that in sentences such as “If he were here, I
would leave,” “were” is a subjunctive, not a subject/verb agreement error. The objective of KISS
Level 2. 2.4—“Prep Phrases—Advanced Questions” is to suggest the types of things that, at this
KISS Level, students should be expected to have problems with.
I strongly suggest you review the KISS Psycholinguistic Model with your students. (See the
“Printable Books Page.”) The model changes the study of grammar into the study of how the
human mind processes language, and it also validates (and sometimes challenges) the rules of
punctuation.
General Reminders:
1. Although the ability to identify constructions is essential, once students have the ability, such
exercises may become boring. You may therefore want to modify some of the directions.
For example, punctuation exercises often ask students to identify constructions as well as fix
the punctuation. You may want to change these to simply fixing and discussing the
punctuation. The same is true for some of the exercises on logic.
2. You should at least browse through the “Master Books” for KISS Level Two. They include
explanations for the nature and sequencing of exercises, comments on unusual cases, and
sample exercises. (Repeating and updating this material in each of the nine grade-level KISS
Level Two books does not make sense.) The on-line versions of the Master Books include
links to all the KISS exercises for what we might call a “KISS slot.” You are welcome to
switch exercises to match texts that your students are reading.
3. Emphasize the systematic method. College instructors in math, electronics, and a number of
other fields complain that students want the “answers” and ignore the methods by which
they can find the answers. If you emphasize the method of systematic analysis (described in
the students’ version), you will probably find that your students will do much better, much
faster. And you will be helping them learn how to work systematically.
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Applying KISS to Students’ Own Reading and Writing
The primary objective of KISS is to enable students to intelligently discuss the grammar of
anything that they read and especially anything that they write. Those who understand KISS
concepts could, theoretically, use the Master Books and then use only the students’ own writing
for exercise materials. But particularly in classrooms, this would be impractical.
Imagine the dilemma of a teacher with twenty students in classroom. The students have been
given the instructional material on subjects and verbs, and then the students immediately all try
to find the subjects and verbs in a short passage that they wrote. The teacher would go nuts
trying to check all of this. In other words, it makes much more sense for the students to all do a
few of the same exercise, an exercise that can then be reviewed in class. KISS primarily provides
the latter type of exercises.
Teachers should regularly supplement these exercises by having students analyze short
passages from their own writing. The students can simply apply the directions they have been
using to the analysis of their own writing. (In other words, if they are working at KISS Level
Three, they would analyze their own writing through clauses.) The students can then work in
small groups to check and discuss each others’ work. How often teachers should do this is an
aspect of the art of teaching. But the more you do this, the more that you will probably see
interested, motivated students.
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KISS Level 2.1.1. - Understood “You”
– Notes for Teachers
When they see a sentence such as “Close the door,” some students can figure out on their
own that “You” is the understood subject of “close.” However, brief instruction and an exercise
or two should make this clear for all students. Traditional grammars refer to these sentences as
“Imperatives” or the “Imperative Mood.” Some grammars simply use the term “Commands.”
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Obviously, you can, if you wish, teach students these names, but remember that the primary
problem in the teaching of grammar is an overabundance of terminology.
Suggested Directions for Analytical Exercises
1. Place parentheses ( ) around each prepositional phrase. Draw an arrow from the preposition to
the word that the phrase modifies, and above the phrase write “Adj.” for “adjective” or
“Adv.” for “adverb.”
2. Write in the understood “you” in each sentence.
3. Underline verbs twice, their subjects once, and label complements (“PA,” “PN,” “IO,” “DO”).
Probable Time Required
An exercise done in class is probably all that most students will need to master this idea.
Ex. 1 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri
1. *You* Talk {to me} (IO) {about your grandfather}. |
2. Deta [DirA], *you* please wait one moment [NuA]! |
3. *You* Go in, Heidi [DirA], | and *you* [#1] fetch your bowl (DO) and the bread (DO). |
4. *You* Look up, Peter [DirA], | and *you* see the eagle (DO) there! |
5. *You* Sit down {beside me} | and *you* tell me (IO) all (DO) {about yourself}. |
6. *You* Sit down | and *you* eat a big breakfast (DO) now. |
7. *You* Please give my love (DO) {to Peter and the goats} (IO), Heidi [DirA]! |
8. *You* Keep your word (DO)! |
9. *You* Get away | and *you* bring my goats (DO). |
10. Oh [Inj], it is lovely (PA) here. | *You* Please come up, grandfather [DirA], | and
*you* see it (DO) {for yourself}. |
Note
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1. Compound verbs that share an understood “you” can be explained as separate clauses (as they
are here), or the second “you” may be left out—as the understood subjects are in most
situations with compound verbs.
Ex. 2 - If My Dog Could Teach Me
Imperative mood implies the existence of the subject “you” and, sometimes we
can say that there is also an implied “should,” but not always. Sometimes it is simply a
straight command. In this case, however, I have included “should” in most cases
because these are suggestions for conduct, not commands. Obviously, you can
eliminate the “should,” should you choose to do so.
[Adv. to "is" If my dog could teach me (IO),] this is [PN of "this is" what [#1] she
would say]: |
[Adv. to "Run" When loved ones come home [NuA],] *you should* always run to greet
them [#2]. |
*You should* Never pass up the opportunity (DO) to go [#3] {for a joyride}. |
*You should* Allow the experience (DO) {of fresh air} and the wind (DO) {in your
face} to be pure ecstasy [#4]. |
[Adv. to "practice" When it's {in your best interest},] *you should* practice obedience
(DO). |
*You should * Let others know [#5] [Adv. to "Let" [#6] when they've invaded your
territory (DO).] |
*You should * Take naps (DO). |
*You should * Stretch {before rising [#7]}. |
*You should * Run, romp, and play daily. |
*You should * Avoid biting (DO) [#8] [Adv. to "Avoid" when a simple growl will do.] |
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{On warm days}, *you should* stop to lie [#9] {on your back} {on the grass}. |
{On hot days}, *you should * drink lots (DO) {of water} and lie {under a shady tree}. |
[Adv. to "dance" and "wag" When you're happy (PA),] *you should * dance around
and wag your entire body (DO). |
No matter [ [#10] how often you're scolded (P),] *you* don't buy into the guilt thing
(DO) and pout ... | *you should* run right back and make friends (DO). |
*You should* Delight {in the simple joy} {of a long walk}. |
*You should* Eat {with gusto and enthusiasm}. | *You should* Stop [Adv. to "Stop"
when you have had enough (DO).] |
*You should* Be loyal (PA). | *You should * Never pretend to be something [#11]
[Adj. to "something" you're not.] |
[Adv. to "dig" If [Subj. of "lies" what [#12] you want] lies buried (PA) [#13],] *you
should* dig [Adv. to "dig" until you find it (DO).] |
[Adv. to "be," "sit," and "nuzzle" When someone is having a bad day (DO),] *you
should* be silent (PA), sit close by and nuzzle them (DO) gently. |
Notes
1. Within its own clause, the “What” also functions as the direct object of “would say.” Note that
the rest of the text could also be explained as appositives to “what she would say.”
2. “Them” is the direct object of the verbal {infinitive) “to greet.” The infinitive functions as an
adverb to “run.”
3. “To go” is a verbal (infinitive) that functions as an adjective to “opportunity.”
4. Expect students at this level to mark “experience” and “wind” as direct objects. Later they will
learn that everything after “allow” is part of an infinitive phrase that functions as the direct
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object of “allow”—“experience” and “wind” are the subjects of the infinitive “to be,” and
“ecstasy” is the predicate noun after “to be.”
5. “Others” is the subject of the infinitive “know.” The infinitive phrase functions as the direct
object of “Let.” See also Note # 6.
6. Some bright students are going to give teachers a good argument that this clause functions as
the direct object of “know.”
7. “Rising” is a verbal (gerund) that functions as the object of the preposition.
8. “Biting” is a gerund that functions as the direct object of “Avoid.”
9. This verbal (infinitive) functions as an adverb of purpose to “stop.”
10. This clause is part of an idiomatic expression that I would not expect students to be able to
explain until Level Five and noun absolutes. At that point, the clause is explained as the
head of a noun absolute—“[how often you’re scolded] *being* no matter *of concern*.”
11. “Something” is a predicate noun after the infinitive “to be” (which means “to be equal to”).
The infinitive phrase is the direct object of “pretend.”
12. “What” functions as subordinating conjunction and, within its clause, as direct object of
“want.”
13. Grammarians will enjoy discussing this one. Within KISS, some people may want to explain
“lies buried” as a palimpsest pattern, with “lies” written over “is.” Note also how this verb
exemplifies the slide between passive voice and predicate adjective.
KISS Level 2. 1. 2 - Varied Positions in the S/V/C Pattern
– Notes for Teachers
Some students are confused when a complement comes before the subject and verb (as in
“Him I respect.”) or when the subject comes after the verb (as in “With deep sorrow wept
mother.”) These are just a few short exercises that can give students examples of this relatively
uncommon structural variation in English sentences. The plan is to include two exercises in each
“complete” (grade-level) book. One can be done quickly in class; the other can be assigned for
homework.
In the “complete” workbooks, the first exercise is different for each grade. The second and
third exercises are the same in all of the “complete” workbooks. The second is a short passage
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that includes two varied S/V/C patterns. The third exercise focuses on those two patterns and
asks students to use them as models to write similarly structured sentences.
Suggested Directions for Analytical Exercises
1. Place parentheses ( ) around each prepositional phrase.
2. Underline verbs twice, their subjects once, and label complements (“PA,” “PN,” “IO,” or
“DO”).
Probable Time Required: One exercise?
Ex. 1 – From Lassie, Come Home by Eric Knight
1. {Behind her} was the protecting overhang {of the rock}. |
2. Wide, expansive bodies (PN) {of water} they are. |
3. Stretching away {below them} was the moon-lit land. |
4. Evening came, | and {across the river} was the sound {of the herder and the lowing} {of
the cows}. [#1] |
5. Not a word (DO) did his parents speak {to him}. |
6. That much (DO) I'll give him (IO). |
7. Isn't she happy (PA) here? |
8. {On his horse} sat the Duke. |
9. Then, {from the farm} below [#2], came the muffled voice {of a man}. |
10. Nor was her head as high [#3] now. |
11. A terrible creature (PN) it was. |
Notes
1. Some people may consider “lowing” as a separate subject. That raises a question of
subject/verb agreement. If “lowing” is a separate subject, should “was” be “were.” The
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general rule here is that if the two subjects are considered (by the writer/speaker) to be a
single unit, the verb can be singular. The typical example is: Peanut butter and jelly makes
(not “make”) a good snack.
2. In context, the object of the preposition “below” is an understood (ellipsed) “Lassie.” The
phrase modifies “farm.”
3. Some people will explain “high” as a predicate adjective that modifies “head.” Others will see
it as an adverb indicates where Lassie’s head was *held*. The “as” implies a comparison
when “then.” We could look at it as a reduction of “as high now *as it was then*.”
Ex. 2 - From “Clytie, the Heliotrope”
And her limbs became rooted (P) [#1] {to the ground}. | Green leaves enfolded her
body (DO). | Her beautiful face was concealed (P) {by tiny flowers}, violet-colored [#2]
and sweet [#2] {with perfume}. | Thus was she changed (P) {into a flower} | and her roots
held her (DO) fast {to the ground}; | but ever she turned her blossom-covered face (DO)
{toward the sun}, following [#3] {with eager gaze} his daily flight. | {In vain} were her
sorrow and tears, [Adv. to "were" for [#4] Apollo regarded her (DO) not.] |
Notes
1. At KISS Level Four, some people will see “rooted” as a gerundive functioning as a predicate
adjective.
2. “Violet-colored” and “sweet” are post-positioned adjectives.
3. “Following” is a gerundive to “she” (and/or “face”); “flight” is the direct object of
“following.”
4. See the discussion of “for” as a conjunction.
KISS Level 2. 1. 3 - Expletives (Optional)
– Notes for Teachers
In sentences such as “There are five men in the woods,” traditional grammars explain
“There” as an “expletive” and they consider “men” as the subject. Although this is an acceptable
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explanation in KISS, the “expletive” concept is not needed (Keep It Simple, S....) because
modern linguistics has shown that “There” can be explained as the subject and “men” as a
predicate noun in an S/V/PN pattern. KISS uses the latter explanation, but those people who
prefer the “expletive” explanation can obviously use it.
I have been asked how KISS deals with subject/verb agreement questions if it considers
“there” as the subject. The answer to this is quite simple. In an S/V/PN pattern, the complement
always has to equal the subject. Thus, if the complement is plural, the verb must be also.
Ex. 1 - From Lassie, Come Home by Eric Knight
Reminder: The optional expletive explanation considers the “there” an expletive, and what
KISS considers the predicate nouns are explained as subjects.
1. There were many more towns (PN) here and many more roads (PN). |
2. There was not an inch (PN) {of space} {on any side}. |
3. There were no more Highlands (PN) and heather (PN). |
4. Perhaps there was no official and recognized procedure (PN) {in any book or statute}
{for the proper engineering} {of such a matter}. |
5. Farther {beyond that} there was another noise (PN), out {in the sweep} {of the wind}. |
Ex. 2 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri
Remember that if we explain the “there” as the subject, the verb agrees in number with the
predicate noun (because predicate nouns are equal to the subject).
1. There is only one teacher (PN) there. |
Or: There [Expletive] is only one teacher there. |
2. Nobody said a word (DO), | and there was an uncomfortable silence (PN). |
Or: Nobody said a word (DO), | and there [Expletive] was an uncomfortable silence. |
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3. Suddenly there was another knock (PN) {at the door} [#1]. |
Or: Suddenly there [Expletive] was another knock {at the door} [#1]. |
4. {Of course} there was enough room (PN) {in the huge house}. |
Or: {Of course} there [Expletive] was enough room {in the huge house}. |
5. "Adelheid [DirA], there is only one punishment (PN) {for you}." |
Or: "Adelheid [DirA], there [Expletive] is only one punishment {for you}." |
6. A few days [NuA] afterwards there was great excitement (PN) {in the Sesemann
residence}. |
Or: A few days [NuA] afterwards there [Expletive] was great excitement {in the Sesemann
residence}. |
7. There are lovely stories (PN) {in this book}. |
Or: There [Expletive] are lovely stories {in this book}. |
8. There were a great many lovely things (PN) {in the trunk}. |
Or: There [Expletive] were a great many lovely things {in the trunk}. |
9. There is too much snow (PN) {for him} to get through [#2]. |
Or: There [Expletive] is too much snow {for him} to get through [#2]. |
10. There were many people (PN) {at the first} and {at the second fountain}. |
Or: There [Expletive] were many people {at the first} and {at the second fountain}. |
Notes
1. “At the door” can also be explained as adverbial to “was.”
2. “Through” is a preposition with its object (“it”) ellipsed. The verbal (infinitive) “to get”
functions as an adverb to “too.”
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KISS Level 2. 1. 4 - Palimpsest Patterns
– Notes for Teachers
To my knowledge, the concept of the “palimpsest” pattern is unique to KISS Grammar.
Once one has spent a little time analyzing randomly selected texts, however, the concept
becomes somewhat obvious. As noted elsewhere in KISS, the traditional “transitive,”
“intransitive,” and “linking” verbs are not very helpful, especially because “linking” verbs are
usually presented in a short, incomplete list that students are expected to memorize and then
forget. They can't use the list effectively because it is incomplete.
In analyzing real texts, however, one will run across a sentence such as the following,
The moonlight flooded that great, silent land. The reaped field lay yellow in it.
“Lay” is rarely, if ever, included in that useless list of “linking” verbs. The KISS question (“Lay
what?”) does not make sense here, but that leaves the question of how to explain “yellow.” One
could, I suppose, call it an adverb, but it functions more as an adjective to “field.” Thus, the
palimpsest pattern—“lay” is “written over” “was.” You will not find a lot of such patterns, but,
as the exercises in this section illustrate, there are enough to make the concept helpful. In most
cases, they are fairly obvious. I doubt that students will have many problems with them, once
they have a name for them.
It might be interesting to study the stylistic implications of palimpsests, especially against
the context of post-positioned adjectives. (See KISS Level 5.5) Conrad, for example, uses a
number of palimpsests (or perhaps I was just looking for them in his story), but compare
Conrad’s palimpsest
It flowed cold and gray in the darkness.
to a version with commas added—
It flowed, cold and gray, in the darkness.
The commas cut “cold and gray” from the verb, thereby making them function more like postpositioned adjectives.
The two exercises from Maxwell’s Intermediate Grammar raise interesting questions of
usage and meaning. For example, in the sentence “Bessie felt bad because she missed her
lesson,” the use of “bad” means that Bessie felt that she had been bad, but suppose the sentence
were “Bessie felt badly because her friend was hurt in an accident.” Traditional prescriptive
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grammars insisted that in cases like this, "felt badly" should be used in both sentences, but such
prescriptiveness runs against common usage. It also hides a distinction in meaning.
In most cases, palimpsest patterns involve a verb written over an S/V/PA pattern, but
sometimes the pattern has a predicate noun. The following example is from The Dark Frigate by
Charles Boardman Hawes:
The other ship, in which he now sat a prisoner, was like some great tiger.
I have no idea of how most grammar textbooks would explain “prisoner” In KISS, however, this
can easily be explained as a palimpsest pattern with “sat” written over “was.” Note, however,
that “prisoner” can alternatively be explained as a noun used as an adverb.
Suggested Directions for Analytical Exercises:
1. Place parentheses ( ) around each prepositional phrase.
2. Underline every finite verb twice, its subject(s) once, and label any complements (“PA,”
“PN,” “IO,” or “DO”).
Probable Time Required:
One exercise ought to give students the concept. After that you will run into cases, but if you
want to be sure, you might do one short exercise that focuses on palimpsests yearly.
Ex. 1 – From Lassie, Come Home by Eric Knight
Reminder: In palimpsest patterns, some other verb is “written over” a form of the verb “to
be” or “to become.”
1. Soon Hynes came hustling {from behind the shrubberies} {beside the kennels}. |
2. The dog still stood barking its signal (DO). |
3. She sat, plump and motherly [#1], looking {into Joe's face}. |
4. Her voice sounded hard (PA) and short (PA). |
5. Joe stood silent (PA). |
6. Joe sat still (PA). |
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7. {For a while} Sam Carraclough sat silent (PA). |
8. [Adv. to "faced" As the one dog lay motionless (PA) {under her paw},] Lassie faced
the other dog (DO). |
9. The grass grew thicker (PA) and coarser (PA). |
10. There came the footsteps (PN) {of her husband}, | and then the door opened. |
Note
1. “Plump” and “motherly” are post-positioned adjectives to “She.” See KISS Level 5.5 - PostPositioned Adjectives.
Ex. 2 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri
1. Further back the old grey rocks rose high (PA) and sheer (PA). |
“rose” written over “were”
2. Her cheeks were burning red (PA) | and she lay peacefully {on her round and chubby
arms}. |
“were burning” written over “were”
3. Just then Heidi came running in. |
“came” written over “was” At KISS Level Four (Verbals), students will learn an alternative
explanation—“running” is a gerund that functions as a noun used as an adverb.
4. {In this healthy life} Heidi grew stronger (PA), and more sunburnt (PA) every day
[NuA]
.|
“grew” written over “became”
5. The shutter {over there} [#1] is hanging loose (PA). |
“is hanging” written over “is”
6. But Miss Deta [DirA], the child seems peculiar (PA) {for her age}. |
“seems” written over “is”
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7. The doctor was sitting motionless (PA). |
“was sitting” written over “is”
8. She appeared frightened (PA). |
“appeared” written over “was”
9. The next day dawned cloudless (PA) and fair (PA). |
“dawned” written over “was”
10. She has to sit quiet (PA) {at her lessons}. |
“to sit” written over “to be”
11. Heidi turned pale (PA) {at that comment}. |
“turned” written over “became”
Note
1. “Over there” may raise questions. Alternatively, it can be explained as an adverb in an ellipsed
adjectival subordinate clause—“The shutter *that is* over there . . . .”
KISS Level 2. 1. 5 - Phrasal Verbs – Notes forTeachers
“Phrasal verbs” is used by some grammarians to discuss words that look like prepositions
after some verbs:
“Come on,” “Look at,” “Look for,” “Run up”
As with expletives and objective complements, most lovers of grammar (and those who write the
textbooks) enjoy themselves in discussions of “phrasal verbs,” which other grammarians refer to
as verbs + particles. The linguists have still other names for the same phenomenon. That these
verbs present few problems to students, and that these terms simply add to the confusion of the
average student, does not seem to concern the grammarians or linguists.
Applying the principles of alternative explanations and of keeping things simple, KISS uses
the term “phrasal verb” primarily for teachers and parents so that we have a word to label the
question. Students can simply 1) consider the “preposition” to be part of the verb, or 2) consider
it to be an adverb, or 3) consider it to be a preposition. In most cases, which of these three
options is best can be determined by relying on the meaning of the words being examined. In
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cases such as “Come on,” for example, some students will consider the “on” as part of the verb
since “Come on” can be interpreted as meaning “Continue.” Other students will prefer to view
this “on” as an adverb modifying “Come.” Since linguists don’t agree, I would accept either
explanation.
Verbs such as “look at” and “look for” are, again, best analyzed in terms of their meaning.
In a case such as “look at the house,” I would accept either “look” as the verb and “at the house”
as a prepositional phrase, or “look at” as the verb (substitutable by “see” or “note”) and “house”
as the direct object. The combination “look for” is probably more variable in meaning. In “Look
for him” in the sense of “Find him,” “for” would best be analyzed as part of the verb. But if it
meant “Look for his sake,” then “for his sake” would be more meaningfully explained as a
prepositional phrase, simply because it functions as an adverb indicating why one should look.
Note again that the instructional material does not use the term “phrasal verbs.” The
term is important to us as teachers, so we can know which problem we are discussing. The
students’ objective, however, is to know how to explain these “prepositions” when they find
them in the sentences that they are trying to analyze. You can, of course, use the term in working
with students, and you can even expect students to remember what it means, but also remember
that the primary problem in the teaching of grammar is the confusion that results from the vast
amount of confusing terminology. Thus, the question is, will the knowledge of the term itself
help or hurt your students?
Suggested Directions for Analytical Exercises
1. Place parentheses ( ) around each prepositional phrase.
2. Underline every finite verb twice, its subject(s) once, and label any complements (“PA,”
“PN,” “IO,” or “DO”).
Probable Time Required
In the third grade workbook, where this concept is introduced, only three exercises focus on
it. For students who already have a solid command of S/V/C patterns, this may be sufficient. I
would, however, expect many students to continue to be confused. Fortunately, the confusion
here is not serious—students will recognize the basic verb (so they will be able to go on to
clauses), and the cumulative nature of KISS will eventually clear up their questions.
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Ex. 1 - From the Writing of Sixth Graders
1.) We were going to find out [DO of "were... out" which blood types were compatible
(PA)]. | To find this out we first learned the types (DO) {of blood}, O, AB, B,
& A. |
“Find out” here means “learn.” (I would not, however, argue with someone who wanted to
explain “out” as an adverb.)
“To find this out” is an infinitive phrase in which “this” is the direct object of “find out.”
The phrase functions as an adverb to “learned.”
“O, AB, B, & A” are appositives to “types.”
2.) Then we took the chart (DO) and looked up [DO of "looked up" which color equals
which blood (PN).] |
Personally, I would consider the “up” as part of the verb here. “Looked up” means “found”
or “determined.” Again, however, I would have no trouble with considering the “up” an
adverb to “looked.” (It is not worth arguing about.) On the other hand, “up which” or
“up which color” is not a prepositional phrase because “which” meaningfully goes with
“color” and “color” is the subject of “equals.”
Because “equals” here means “represents,” some people may prefer to explain “blood” as a
direct object. For those who want a clear “either/or” distinction, the arguments become
complex and end up in questions of semantics and the philosophy of language. I would
simply accept either.
3.) I can't hear things (DO) very well {because of the big truck} [Adj. to "truck" that's
chewing up some tree limbs (DO).] |
“Chewing up” is equivalent to “devouring,” but I would also accept “up” as an adverb to
“chewing.” On the other hand, “up some tree limbs” is not a prepositional phrase. To
explain it that way is to suggest that the truck is up in the tree limbs.
4.) *You* Take off the "lid" (DO) {of the pumpkin} and remove the candle (DO). |
*You* Also, blow out the candle (DO) {before putting it away}. |
"Take off" means "remove." "Off the lid" cannot be a prepositional phrase because the
sentence means "Take the lid of the pumpkin off the pumpkin." That, in turn, suggests
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that in "take off" the "off" can be considered the preposition in an ellipsed prepositional
phrase -- "Take {off the pumpkin} the lid {of the pumpkin}."
Similarly, "blow out" means "extinguish," but "out" can be explained as an adverb to
"blow." It does not make sense, however, to explain "out the candle" as a prepositional
phrase. The sentence does not mean "to blow something out the candle."
"Putting" is a gerund that functions as the object of the preposition "before." "It" is the direct
object of "putting," and "away" is an adverb to "putting."
5.) [Adv. to "drove" When we were {on our bike-ride} today,] we drove down {to the
horse-lot} to look {at the horses}. |
Although I would consider “down” to be an adverb to “drove,” if a student identified “down
to the horse-lot” as a prepositional phrase, I would simply accept it.
I vaguely remember a grammarian on the ATEG list stating that if students learned to
analyze “look at” as a prepositional phrase, they “would have to relearn it” as a phrasal
verb. The reasoning behind his statement appeared to be simply that he said so. Until
someone gives me a better reason, I will accept either explanation.
“To look,” or, if you prefer, “to look at” is an infinitive that functions as an adverb (of
purpose) to “drove.”
6.) I held out my hand (DO), | and the mare, now drawing near {to the fence}, snuffed
{at it} and then lowered her nose (DO), and looked {at me}. |
“Out” here means “outward” and can therefore be considered an adverb; alternatively, “held
out” here means “extended” so I would accept either of these explanations. As a
prepositional phrase, “out my hand” here does not make sense—the sentence means “I
held my hand out.”
Although I have labeled “near” as an adverb, I would also accept “near to the fence” as a
prepositional phrase.
For “looked at,” see the explanation for # 5.
“Drawing” is a gerundive to “mare.”
7.) I stroked her (DO) {for some time} [Adv. to "stroked" before I realized [DO of
"realized" we should get along]] | and then I turned around slowly and drove away,
leaving her gazing {after me}. |
Since there is nothing that answers the question “along what?,” “along” does not usually
present my students with a prepositional phrase problem. I have been surprised,
however, by the number of my students who, faced with “get along,” label “along” as
the direct object of “get.” I then have to ask them what an “along” is that one can get
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one. Note that “should get along” here appears to be idiomatic for “should continue on
our way.” (I cannot tell for certain without the context of the sentence.)
As with “along,” there is nothing that meaningfully functions as the object of “around.”
Here too, however, some of my students would thoughtlessly label “around slowly” as a
prepositional phrase. Again, the only thing we as teachers can do is to stress the
importance of Meaning! Meaning! Meaning!
“Leaving” is a gerundive that modifies “I”; “her” is the direct object of “leaving.” Most
traditional grammarians would consider “gazing” to be a gerundive to “her.” (They
would, however, call it a “participle.”) In KISS Level Five, students have the option of
explaining “her gazing” as a noun absolute that functions as the direct object of
“leaving.”
8.) The sun refuses to come out. |
“Out” can be considered part of the verb (which in this case is an infinitive), since “come
out” here means “shine.” Alternately, if the sun won’t come out, that means that it is {in
the clouds}. Thus “out” could also be explained as part of an ellipsed prepositional
phrase—“to come out of the clouds.”
Ex. 2 – From Lassie, Come Home by Eric Knight
Reminder: The purpose of these exercises is to teach students that, in sentence two, for
example, “up its mind” is not a prepositional phrase. This is important because in the KISS
Approach students normally identify prepositional phrases before they identify subjects and
verbs.
1. No animal can pass on its acquired knowledge (DO) {to its young} {in this way}. |
2. It had made up its mind (DO). |
3. He walked halfway {to the collie} and set down the bowl (DO). |
4. {At last} she denned up [Adv. to "denned up" where a clump {of gorse} arched over
{beside a field-wall}]. |
5. He would take out a stout cudgel (DO). |
6. He took out the cartridge (DO) {from the chamber} {of his rifle}. |
7. Toots could pick up pennies (DO) {from the ground} and bring them (DO) {to
Rowlie}. |
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8. Quickly he set up a small brazier (DO) and built a fire (DO). |
9. She cried out the words (DO). |
10. Rowlie took off Bess's nosebag (DO). |
Ex. 3 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri
1. Oh [Inj], *you* look at the fir-trees (DO) {over there}! |
Alternatively: look {at the fir-trees}
2. The snow would soon cover up the cottage (DO). |
3. Suddenly Heidi took off her pretty dress (DO) and tied her old shawl (DO) {about
her}. |
“took off” = “removed”
4. She is climbing up {with the goatherd}. |
5. The sun had lost its vigor (DO), | and the child had to put on her shoes (DO) and
stockings (DO) and her little dress (DO). |
6. A broad-shouldered man was just loading up large bags (DO). |
7. The old man now opened the door (DO), | and Heidi followed him (DO) {into a
fairly spacious room}, [Adj. to "room" which took in the entire expanse (DO) {of
the hut}]. |
“took in” = “extended” or “filled”
8. You look like Peter (PN). |
“look like” = “resemble,” alternatively: look {like Peter}
9. The grandfather soon had mended the cottage (DO); | often he would take down
big loads (DO) {of timber}. |
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“take down” = “unload”
10. Heidi's tale was interrupted (P) suddenly {by a great thumping} {on the door}; | and
who should come in {but Peter}. |
“come in” = “enter”
KISS Level 2. 1. 6 - Distinguishing Finite Verbs from Verbals
IIm
mppoorrttaanntt N
Nootteess ffoorr T
Teeaacchheerrss!!
Even many teachers who have been “taught” grammar are not familiar with the term
“verbal.” A verbal is a verb that functions as noun, adjective, or adverb. In other words, verbals
can function in any way that a noun, adjective, or adverb can. In KISS Level Four — Verbals,
students will learn that there are three, and only three, types of verbals (gerunds, gerundives, and
infinitives). They will also learn that like any other verb, verbals can have subjects, complements
and be modified by adverbs. Notes in the analysis keys explain the subjects and complements of
verbals, but remember that these explanations are for teachers and parents. At this KISS Level
(2.1.6) students simply need to learn how to distinguish finite verbs (the verbs they should
underline twice) from verbals. They can learn how to do this by using the three tests explained
in the instructional materials.
Consider:
1. They went to the zoo to see the monkeys.
In (1), “went” is a finite verb because it makes a sentence — “They went to the zoo.” “See,”
however, is not. First, it’s got a “to” directly before it. But most importantly, the “to see” cannot
be used to form an acceptable sentence — They to see the monkeys??? Zoo to see the
monkeys??? Nonsense. Thus “to see” is a verbal. It functions as an adverb to explain why “They
went.”
2. He likes everything from hunting to fishing.
3. Anthony’s driving is dangerous.
Situations like that in (2) should be easy for students because, if they are using the KISS
approach, “hunting” and “fishing” should already be tucked out of the way in the parentheses
that mark prepositional phrases. Both “hunting” and “fishing” function as nouns, the objects of
24
prepositions. In (3), “driving” is a verb, but it is not finite because the sentence does not mean
“Anthony is driving”; it means that his driving — whenever he drives — is dangerous. Simply
put, “driving” functions as a noun, the subject of the sentence. (Here again, meaning is crucial to
the KISS approach.)
4. Hearing his mother call, Paul always went to her.
Sentence (4) includes two verbals. “Hearing” is a verb, but it is not finite. If we ask “Who or
what is hearing his mother call?” the answer is “Paul,” but “Paul hearing his mother call” is, as
students know, not an acceptable sentence. Students should be expected to use their knowledge
of basic sentence structure. Their knowledge of it is just as good as any grammarian’s. And it
will help them to find — and then to ignore — the other verbal in (4). Thus, “call” is a verb, but
“His mother call.” (unlike “His mother calls.”) is not an acceptable sentence. Thus “call” is not a
finite verb. “His mother call” functions as a noun, the direct object of “Hearing.”
5. Sent to the store by his mother, he went to the park instead.
As always in the KISS approach, students must pay attention to meaning. In (5), students
could make an acceptable sentence with “sent”: “He sent to the store.” But that is not what “sent”
means in this sentence. It means “he *was* sent.” Verbs cannot be added to a phrase to make it
finite. Such verbs are verbals. In this case, “Sent” functions as a verbal adjective that modifies
“he.” If you are not familiar with verbals, you might want to look at KISS Level Four —
Verbals.
There is one case that is not covered by the three tests. Consider, for example, the sentence:
6. They made Sam and Sally go to school every day.
Since students will rightly see “Sam and Sally go to school every day” as an acceptable sentence,
they will probably identify “go” as a finite verb. To see that it is not, we need to apply an
additional test (which we might call the “Substitution Test”). If they were to substitute a pronoun
for “Sam and Sally,” every student would substitute “them” — “They made them go to school
every day.” And “Them go to school every day” fails the sentence test. You can, of course, add
this test to the instructional material yourself. As of now, however, my sense is that such cases
are relatively rare. Thus, rather than add instructional material for relatively rare cases, it is
probably better to focus students’ attention on the majority of cases, and to expect students to
25
make mistakes with such rare cases. Once they have mastered the basic distinction, you can point
out this additional test.
Teaching Verbals at KISS Level Two
Finite verbs are not easy to define. Perhaps that is why even many experienced English
teachers do not know what they are. (Ask some.) This does not, by the way, suggest that teachers
are stupid. The problem is that the professors who teach the teachers, and the people who write
the textbooks, are more interested in teaching the names of constructions. They do not even
attempt to help K-12 teachers learn how to analyze the sentences that students read and write.
Thus, instead of using the term “verbals,” the professors (and the textbooks) focus on the three
types of verbals — “gerunds,” “participles” (KISS “gerundives”), and “infinitives.” This “Divide
and Confuse” strategy keeps power and money in the hands of the professors and textbook
publishers, but it does not help the teachers and students.
The instructional materials for this objective begin with the three tests that students can use
to make the distinction — the Noun Test, the “To” Test, and the Sentence Test. The first
exercise is on the Noun Test, the second on the “To” test, and the third on the Sentence test.
The material on the Noun Test includes a brief general explanation of verbals. The “Sentence
Test” usually covers the examples in the “Noun” and “To” tests, but the “Noun” and “To” tests
are easier to remember and to apply. This separation into three types of exercises should help
teachers help students master one test at a time.
Students are then given “A Summary Sheet of the Three Tests.” Exercises four (a & b) are
on “Mixed” verbals. Exercise five is a “Passage for Analysis,” and six is “Just for Fun.”
Students who have a good sense of what is, and what is not a good sentence, should be able to
master this distinction with these seven exercises. If they need more practice, remember that you
can find additional exercises in the on-line Master Master Collection of Exercises on the KISS
web site.
Two Notes of Caution:
First, before you begin using these exercises, you should be sure that the students are fairly
comfortable with identifying the finite verbs in the “basic” exercises, exercises in which there are
26
few, if any, verbals. Students who cannot do so will probably find exercises on verbals extremely
confusing and frustrating.
Second, since, in context, every verb is either finite or a verbal, the instructional material on
the “tests” explains much of KISS Level Four. It is, however, one thing to explain gerunds,
gerundives and infinitives, and something quite different to expect the students to remember all
these terms and details. Unfortunately, it is very easy to get caught up in teaching the three kinds
of verbals. I simply want to emphasize, therefore, that the objective here is to enable students to
identify the finite verbs, not the three types of verbals. The study of clauses (KISS Level Three)
is much more important than the details of verbals. Once students are at least well into the
mastery of clauses, you can start the advanced work on verbals.
Suggested Directions for Analytical Exercises:
1. Place parentheses ( ) around each prepositional phrase.
2. Underline every finite verb twice, its subject(s) once, and label any complements (“PA,”
“PN,” “IO,” or “DO”).
3. Make a rectangle around each verbal.
Probable Time Required:
How much time you want to devote to focusing on the distinction between finite verbs and
verbals depends on several variables, including the amount of time you can spend on grammar,
whether or not you are working within a coordinated curriculum design, and your personal
objectives. Because infinitives (“to” plus a verb) frequently function as complements, the KISS
grade-level books suggest introducing it in Grade Three. The basic distinction between finite
verbs and verbals is then introduced in Grade Four. When you first introduce the distinction, if
you have the time, you should probably do at least two exercises on the noun test, two on the
“to” test, and two on the sentence test. (Review the first, in-class, before the students do the
second.) The distinction, however, cannot simply be taught and then forgotten, as is so often the
case in most grammar books.
27
Ex. 1 - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri
Remember that the objective here is simply that students will underline the finite verbs
twice, and not so underline the verbals. The explanations of the verbals are included for your
information.
1. The little girl had given up [#1] following her companions [#2]. |
2. It will be very easy (PA) {for Peter to watch her} [#3] . |
3. He would make me pay [#4] {for it}. |
4. The thing [Adj. to "thing" she looked forward to most] was giving the soft white rolls
[#5]
{to the grandmother}. |
5. {Near a table} a woman was seated (P), busy [#6] {with mending Peter's coat} [#7]. |
6. To be {at peace} {with God and men} makes one's heart feel light [#8] . |
7. Going {to the pasture} {with Peter and the goats} was always a pleasant experience (PN). |
8. Peter arrived {with his flock}, | but {without even answering the girls' friendly greeting
[#9]
} , he disappeared {with a grim scowl}. |
9. The only remedy {for her} is to be restored [#10] {to her native mountain air}. |
10. You won't repent {of having told me [#11] }. |
11. It seemed [Adv. to "seemed" as if the grandfather had done nothing (DO) else all
his life [NuA] {than nurse lame people [#12] }]. |
Notes
1. “Given up” is idiomatic for “stopped.” It can also be explained as a phrasal verb. See KISS
Level 2.1.5 - Phrasal Verbs (Preposition? Or Part of the Verb?).
2. “Companions” is the direct object of the verbal (gerund) “following.” The gerund is the direct
object of “had given up.”
28
3. At this point in their work, most students will probably see “for Peter to watch her” as a
prepositional phrase. That explanation makes “Peter” the subject and “her” the direct object
of the verbal (infinitive) “watch.” The infinitive phrase functions as the object of the
preposition ‘for,” and the prepositional phrase modifies “easy.” Alternatively, the infinitive
can be explained as a delayed subject—“To watch her will be very easy for Peter.” See
KISS Level 5.6 - Delayed Subjects and Sentences.
4. “Me pay” answers the question “would make what?” Thus it functions as a direct object, and
“pay” cannot be a finite verb here. (This will become clearer for students when they learn
the sentence test.) Technically, “me” is the subject of the infinitive “pay,” and the infinitive
phrase is the direct object of “would make.’
5. At KISS Level One, the subordinate clause will confuse some students, but they should be
able to understand that the “thing” was not doing the “giving” but rather was the “giving.”
“Rolls” is the direct object of the verbal (gerund) “giving,” and the verbal phrase functions
as a predicate noun to “thing.”
6. “Busy” is a post-positioned adjective to “woman.” See KISS Level 5.5 - Post-Positioned
Adjectives.
7. If they have been taught to identify all the prepositional phrases first, most students should
have “with mending” or “with mending Peter’s coat” in parentheses. Technically, “coat” is
the direct object of the verbal (gerund) “mending,” and the verbal phrase is the object of the
preposition.
8. Given the instructional material, most students should easily see that “To be” is the subject of
“makes.” If they ask “makes what,” the meaningful answer is “one’s heart feel light.” That
makes this phrase a direct object. {The sentence test will make this clearer.) “Heart” is the
subject and “light” is a predicate adjective (in a palimpsest pattern) to the verbal (infinitive)
“feel.”
9. “Greeting” is the direct object of the verbal (gerund) “answering.” The gerund phrase
functions as the object of the preposition.
10. “To be restored” is (equals) the “remedy.” Thus this verbal (infinitive) functions as a
predicate noun.
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11. “Me” is the indirect object of the verbal (gerund) “having told.” The gerund phrase functions
as the object of the preposition.
12. “People” is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “nurse.” The infinitive phrase functions
as the object of the preposition “than.” The prepositional phrase modifies “else,” which
means “other” and functions as an adjective to “nothing.”
Ex. 2 – From “Jack and His Golden Box”
1. I am sorry (PA) to see you go. |
First of all, “to see” does not pass the “to” test. Second, the subject of “to see” is “I,”
but “I to see you go” does not pass the sentence test. Thus “to see” is not a finite verb. [It is
an infinitive that functions as an adverb to “sorry.”]
The “you go” will create a problem, since “you go” can be an acceptable sentence. The
problem arises because “you” is used for both subjects and objects. Substitute “she/her” and
the structure of the sentence becomes clearer. We would say “to see her go,” but not “to see
she go.” And “her go” is easily recognized by students as not passing the sentence test. Thus
“go” is not a finite verb. [It is an infinitive. “You” is its subject, and the infinitive phrase
functions as the direct object of “to see.”]
2. Jack had hardly time (DO) to get the words {out of his mouth}. |
Some students are going to see “had to get” as a finite verb phrase. Since this would be
the only finite verb phrase in the sentence, this view would not be a major problem, but the
sentence does not mean that he had to get the words out. It means he hardly had time. Thus
the “to get” phrase modifies “time.” [It is an infinitive and “words” is the direct object of “to
get.”]
3. There is more (PN) to come yet. |
The subject of “to come” is “more,” and “More to come yet” fails the sentence test.
Thus “to come” is not a finite verb. [It is an infinitive that functions as an adjective to
“more.”] For “There,” see also “Expletives.”
4. The servant was curious (PA) to know [DO what might be {in the box}]. |
30
The subject of “to know” is “servant,” but “The servant to know ...” fails the sentence
test. [It is an infinitive that functions as an adverb to “curious.”]
5. Jack begged the gentleman to give him twelve months and a day to look {for the
castle}. |
First, both “to give” and “to look” fail the “to” test. Second, the subject of “to give” is
“gentleman,” and “The gentleman to give him ...” fails the sentence test. The subject of “to
look” is “him” (“Jack”) and both “him to look for the castle” and “Jack to look for the
castle” fail the sentence test. Thus neither “to give” nor “to look” qualifies as a finite verb.
[They are both infinitives. “Gentleman” is the subject of “to give”; “him” is the indirect
object of “to give,” and “months” and “day” are direct objects of “to give.” The infinitive
phrase functions as the direct object of “begged.” “To look” functions as an adverb to “to
give,” explaining why Jack wanted the time to be given.]
Ex. 3 - From Stories of Robin Hood Told to the Children
1. Gathering all his strength, (with one mighty blow} he sent Robin (DO) backwards,
right {into the river}. |
“He gathering all his strength” is not an acceptable sentence. Thus “gathering” is a verbal (a
gerundive that modifies “he”). “Strength” is the direct object of “Gathering.”
2. Late one evening [NuA] he arrived {in London}, very tired indeed {with his long journey}. |
“He tired indeed” can be an acceptable sentence, but in context “tired” means “he was
tired.” Thus “tired” is a verbal (a gerundive that modifies “he”).
3. In and out {among the trees} he went, twisting and turning. |
“He twisting” and “He turning” are not acceptable sentences. Thus “twisting” and “turning”
are verbals (gerundives that modify “he”). (Note that without the comma after “went,” we
might process this sentence as a palimpsest pattern. But the comma disconnects “went” from
“twisting and turning,” In effect, it says “Don’t chunk ‘twisting and turning’ to ‘went.’” As a
result, the gerundives are chunked to “he.”)
4. On they came, trampling down the ferns, and crushing the pretty wildflowers. |
“They trampling” and “They crushing” are not acceptable sentences. Thus “trampling” and
“crushing” are verbals (gerundives that modify “they”). (Note that, as in the previous
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sentence, without the comma after “came,” we might process this sentence as a palimpsest
pattern.) “Ferns” is the direct object of “trampling,” and “wildflowers” is the direct object of
“crushing.”
5. The Bishop rode {in the middle} {of them}, wearing a gorgeous robe, trimmed {with
lace}, {over his armour}. |
“The Bishop wearing” and “The robe trimmed” would not make acceptable sentences. Thus
“wearing” and “trimmed” are verbals (gerundives to “Bishop” and “robe,” respectively).
“Robe” is the direct object of “wearing.” [Note how the two commas set off “trimmed with
lace.” Without them, we would have—“wearing a gorgeous robe trimmed with lace over his
armour.” That would suggest that it is the lace, and not the whole robe, that is “over his
armour.”]
6. Little John knelt {on one knee}, and, taking Marian's hand, kissed it (DO) [Adv. to
"kissed" as if she had been a queen (PN).] |
“Little John taking Marian’s hand” is not an acceptable sentence, so “taking” is a verbal (a
gerundive that modifies “Little John”). “Hand” is the direct object of “taking.”
7. He leaned his head (DO) {against the trunk} {of a tree}, and shutting his eyes,
dreamed happy day dreams (DO). |
“He shutting his eyes” is not an acceptable sentence, so “shutting” is a verbal (a gerundive
that modifies “He”). “Eyes” is the direct object of “shutting.”
8. "No, my Lord Bishop [DirA]," said Robin, taking his hat off and bowing politely. |
“Robin taking his hat off” and “Robin bowing politely” are not acceptable sentences, so
“taking” and “bowing” are verbals (gerundives that modify “Robin”). “Hat” is the direct
object of “taking.” The words in quotation marks are the direct object of “said.”
9. Back {to their forest home} they all went, laughing and talking as merrily as possible,
taking John Little along {with them}. |
“They laughing” and “They talking” are not acceptable sentences, so “laughing” and
“talking” are verbals (gerundives to “they”).
“As possible” is an idiomatic, highly ellipsed clause construction—“[as it is possible to
be merry].” Within it, the infinitive “to be merry” is a delayed subject. The ellipsed clause
chunks to the previous “as.”
“They taking John Little” would not make an acceptable sentence, so “taking” is also a
verbal (a gerundive that modifies “they”). “John Little” is the direct object of “taking.”
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10. They lived {in great caves} {during the winter}, and spent their time (DO) making
stores {of bows and arrows}, and mending their boots and clothes. |
“They making stores” and “They mending their boots and clothes” will not make
acceptable sentences, so “making” and “mending” are verbals (gerundives to “They”.)
“Stores” is the direct object of “making” and “boots” and “clothes” are the direct objects of
“mending.”
Once students are fairly comfortable with verbals, they may want to explain the
“making” and “mending” phrases as gerunds (verbal nouns) that function as Nouns Used as
Adverbs. Whereas the explanation as gerundives makes them modifiers of “They,” the
explanation as gerunds focuses on their adverbial function—how they spent their time.
Ex. 4.a. - From the Writing of a Sixth Grader
1. They told her to meet them here again that night [NuA]. |
“To meet” does not pass the “to” test so it is a verbal. (It is an infinitive. “Her” is both the
indirect object of “told” and the subject of “to meet”; “them” is the direct object of “to
meet,” and the infinitive functions as the direct object of “told.”)
2. One day [NuA] {at school} a group {of children} were huddled (P) {in a corner}
whispering. |
“A group of children whispering” does not pass the sentence test. Thus “whispering” is a
verbal (a gerundive that modifies “group”). Note that if it were preceded by “and,” it would
be part of a compound finite verb—“were huddled in a corner and whispering.”
3. But she continued to fill up her sack. |
“To fill” fails the “to” test so it is a verbal. {It is an infinitive; “sack” is its direct object, and
the infinitive phrase itself functions as the direct object of “continued.”)
4. They sat {beside the stove} watching their wood-pile disappear. |
Both “They watching” and “Wood-pile disappear” fail the sentence test. Thus “watching”
and “disappear” are both verbals. (“Wood-pile” is the subject of the infinitive “disappear.”
The infinitive phrase is the direct object of “watching” which is a gerundive that modifies
“they.”}
5. They could not earn any more rubles (DO) to buy food or buy more wood {with
*them*}. |
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“To buy ... or buy” fails the “to” test. (“Food” and “wood” are the direct objects of “buy.”
The infinitive phrase itself can be explained either as an adjective to “roubles” or as an
adverb (of purpose) to “earn.”) The “with” at the end raises a number of interesting
questions, all of which quickly lead into theoretical questions of both syntax and natural
language development.
6. She assured them (IO) [DO that she could be trusted (P) {before asking again
[what (DO of "meant") they meant] }. |
Grammarians will almost certainly debate the function of “them” and the “that” clause,
some claiming that the “them” is the direct object, and then proposing other explanations of
the “that” clause. “Asking” is a verbal (a gerund that functions as the object of the
preposition “before”). The “what they meant” clause is the direct object of “asking.”
7. [Adv. to "gave" and "proceeded" When she arrived,] they gave her (IO) a sack (DO)
and proceeded to fill their sacks {with coal} {from the railroad}. |
“Sacks” is the direct object of the infinitive “to fill.” The infinitive phrase functions as the
direct object of “proceeded.”
8. [Adv. to "was" When the leader, a twelve-year-old boy, told everyone to stop [#8],] her
relief was great (PA), but short-lived (PA). |
“Boy” is an appositive to “leader.” “Everyone” is both the indirect object of “told” and the
subject of the infinitive “to stop.” The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of
“told.”
Notes
These sentences were taken from the writing of Ellen McGuirk, a sixth grade homeschooled student. She was writing about a book called The Endless Steppe. The heroine is a
Jewish twelve-year-old, living in a Siberian village and attending school with the locals. They
are hatching a plan to steal coal from the schoolhouse because their families are short of fuel.
-- Adapted from a message from Ellen's mother.
[I sincerely appreciate the contribution of these sentences. I could never imitate the writing
of students at all the different grade levels, and besides, I have a terrible imagination. Thus these
contributions enable me to prepare exercises much faster than I otherwise could. (EV)]
The image in the exercise is based on a cover for Esther Hautzig's The Endless Steppe.
(Amazon) [The book is on the Recommended Reading List for Grade 8 at Teachersfirst.com.]
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Ex. 4.b. - Based on “Perseus” by Charles Kingsley
1. On they rushed, sweeping and flapping, {like eagles} {after a hare}. |
“They sweeping and flapping” fails the sentence test. [”Sweeping” and “flapping” are
verbals—gerundives that modify “they.”]
2. The rulers {of Olympus} have sent me (DO) {to you} to ask the way {to the Gorgon}.
|
“To ask” fails both the “to” test and the sentence test—“Me to ask the way” is not a
sentence. [There are two valid explanations here. “Me” can be considered the direct object.
That makes “to ask” a verbal (infinitive) that functions as an adverb answering the question
“Why?” Or “me” can be consider the subject of the infinitive “to ask.” This view makes the
infinitive phrase the direct object of “have sent.” In either case, “way” is the direct object of
“to ask.”]
3. He left this girl to die, | and dead (PA) she is {to him}. |
“This girl to die” fails both the “to” and the sentence test. [Here again there are two possible
explanations of the verbal. “Girl” can be seen as the direct object of “left” and the infinitive
“to die” can be considered an adverb (How?) to “left.” Or “girl can be seen as the subject of
“to die” and the infinitive phrase then becomes the direct object of “left.”]
4. Grinding his teeth {with rage}, he went out, and away {to the king's palace}, and
{through the men's rooms, and the women's rooms}, and so {through all the house}. |
“He grinding his teeth” fails the sentence test. [”Grinding” is a gerundive that modifies “he.”
“Teeth” is the direct object of “grinding.”]
5. He saw them come howling {on his track}. |
“Them come howling” fails the sentence test. [”Them” is the subject of the infinitive
“come.” The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “saw.”]
“Them howling” also fails the sentence test. [”Howling” can be explained in two ways.
For one, it can be seen as a gerundive that modifies “He.” Second, it can be seen as a gerund
(a verb that functions as a noun) that here functions as a Noun Used as an Adverb to
“come.”]
6. *You* Let the people build altars {to Father Zeus), and {to me}, and worship the
Immortals. |
Although “the people build alters to Father Zeus” passes the sentence test, it won’t if we
substitute a pronoun—“(Let) them build altars.” [”People is the subject of the infinitive
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“build,” and “altars” is its direct object. The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of
“Let.” The same holds for “worship”—the “and” joins the two infinitives. “Immortals” is the
direct object of “worship.”]
7. The water gurgled in and out {of his wide jaws}, [Adv. (time) to "gurgled" as he rolled
along, dripping and glistening {in the beams} {of the morning sun}]. |
“He dripping and glistening” fails the sentence test. [”Dripping” and “glistening” are
gerundives that modify “He,” or, as above, gerunds that function as Nouns Used as
Adverbs.]
8. Watching the rich men go in saddened him (DO). |
“He watching the rich men” fails the sentence test. (It also violates the meaning—if we
ask what saddened him, the answer is “Watching.” Thus “Watching” also fails the noun
test.) [”Watching” is a verbal, a gerund that functions as the subject of “saddened.”
Although “the men go in” passes the sentence test, it does not if we substitute a
pronoun—“them go in.” [”Men” is the subject of the infinitive “go.” The infinitive phrase
functions as the direct object of “Watching.”]
9. Polydectes, not being able to get [DO of "to get" what he wanted {by force}], cast
about {in his wicked heart} {*for* [OP how he might get it (DO) {by cunning} ] }
.|
“Polydectes” not being able” fails the sentence test. [”Being” is a gerundive that
modifies “Polydectes.”]
“To get” fails the “to” test. [It is an infinitive that functions as an adverb to “able,”
which is a predicate adjective after “being.”
Grammarians will probably have a variety of explanations for the “how” clause, but the
easiest is probably to consider it the object of the ellipsed preposition “for.”
“Cunning” will probably not cause students much of a problem because it is used more
as a noun than as a verb. Technically, it is a gerund that functions here as the object of the
preposition “by.”
10. Perseus laughed, and went his way [NuA] {to the north-east}, hoping all day [NuA] long
to see the blue Mediterranean sparkling, [Adv. (purpose) to "hoping" that he might
fly {across it} {to his home}]. |
“Perseus hoping” fails the sentence test. [”Hoping” is a gerundive that modifies
“Perseus.”]
“To see” fails the “to test.” [It is an infinitive that functions as the direct object of
“hoping.”]
36
“The Mediterranean sparkling” fails the sentence test. [”Sparkling” can be explained in
several ways. For one, it can be seen as a gerundive that modifies “Mediterranean,” the
direct object of “to see.” At KISS Level 5.8, many people may prefer to see “Mediterranean
sparkling” as a noun absolute that functions as the direct object of “to see.”]
Ex. 5 - The Night Watch by Rembrandt Van Rijn
One time [NuA], more [#1] {than two hundred and fifty years ago}, two little children
living [#2] {in Amsterdam} were playing {at the edge} {of the city} just [#3] {at evening}. |
Soon they overheard some Spanish soldiers near-by talking [#4] together. | They began
to understand [#5] [DO that the men were making some kind (DO) {of plans}] | and,
listening [#6] very sharply, they found [DO that the Spaniards intended to attack the
city [#7] {of Amsterdam} that night [NuA] ]. | The Spaniards were fighting the
Netherlands (DO) {at that time}. | You can imagine [DO how [#8] frightened (PA) the
children were]. | They knew [DO that they must tell some one (IO) {about it} {at
once}]. | Very quietly they crept away {from [OP where the men were] }, then ran {for
their lives} {to the town hall}. | The Civic Guard were having a banquet (DO) there. |
Rembrandt has painted the scene (DO) just [ [#9] as the little girl, {in the center} {of the
group}, has finished her story (DO)]. | The men are making ready [#10] to meet the
attack [#11] . | Some have on their armor (DO), | some are polishing their guns (DO), |
some have their drums (DO), | and all are full (PA) {of excitement}. |
[Adv. to "was found" When the painting was *going* [#12] to be put (P) {in the new
Ryks Museum}, {in Amsterdam},] it was found (P) [ [#13] that the wall was too narrow
(PA) {for the picture}]. | [DO What (DO) do you think] the authorities did? | The
stupid men cut a piece (DO) off {from each side} {of the picture} to fit it [#14] {in its new
37
place}. | Was ever anything so silly (PA)? | Even those pieces cut [#15] off would bring
more money (DO) to-day [Adv. (comparison) to "more" than the museum itself [#16] cost]. |
The men [Adj. to "men" who had money (DO) {at the time} [Adj. to "time"
Rembrandt painted the picture (DO)]] were angry (PA) [Adv. to "were" because the
artist would not make portraits (DO) [Adv. to "not" as they wanted them (DO)]]. |
They ignored Rembrandt (DO), | and he became very poor (PA) and died unknown
[#17]
. | To-day those rich men are forgotten (PA) [#18] | and Rembrandt is known (P)
{the world over} [#19]. |
Notes
1. Grammarians would probably offer several different explanations of “more.” In KISS, perhaps
the easiest explanation is to consider it a pronoun that functions as an adverb to the adverbial
function of “time.”
2. “Two little children living in Amsterdam” does not pass the sentence test. [”Living” is a verbal
(a gerundive) that modifies “children.”
3. The adverb “just” modifies the following prepositional phrase.
4. “Soldiers talking together” fails the sentence test, so “talking” is a verbal. Technically, it is a
gerundive (which most grammarians call “participles”). In KISS, “soldiers” can be
explained as the direct object of “overheard” and “talking” as a gerundive that modifies
“soldiers.” But at KISS Level 5.8 Noun Absolutes, some students will prefer to see “soldiers
... talking” as a noun absolute that functions as the direct object. “Near-by” seems to be an
adverb that modifies “soldiers.” It is. KISS explains it as a reduction of an adjectival
subordinate clause -- soldiers *who were* near-by...”
5. At his point in their work, students should probably see “to understand” as a verbal that
functions as the direct object of “began.” Technically, it is an infinitive.
6. “They listening very sharply” fails the sentence test. [”Listening” is a verbal (gerundive) that
modifies “they.”]
7. See note 5. In this case, “city” is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “to attack.”
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8. Note how “how” functions simultaneously as a subordinate conjunction and as an adverb to
“frightened.”
9. Technically, this is an adverbial clause of time that chunks to “has painted,” but in effect it
functions as an adjective to “scene.” Thus it points to the time (in the story sequence) at
which Rembrandt chose to paint the scene.
10. “Ready” is a predicate adjective in an ellipsed infinitive construction -- “*themselves to be*
ready.” (See KISS Level 4 - Verbals.) That infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of
“were making.”
11. “To meet” fails both the “to” and the “sentence” tests. It is an infinitive that functions as an
adverb to “ready.” “Attack” is the direct object of the infinitive.
12. See: KISS Level 3. 2. 1 - Semi-Reduced and Other Ellipsed Clauses.
13. This clause functions as a delayed sentence. See: KISS Level 5.6 Delayed Subjects
14. “To fit” fails the ‘to” test. It is an infinitive that functions as an adverb of purpose to “cut.”
“It” is its direct object.
15. “Pieces” can not “cut off,” so “cut” fails the sentence test. It is a gerundive that modifies
“pieces.”
16. “Itself” is an appositive to “museum.”
17. “Unknown” is a predicate adjective in a palimpsest pattern in which “died” is written over
“was.” See KISS Level 2.1.4 - Palimpsest Patterns.
18. Alternatively, “forgotten” can be considered as part of a passive finite verb phrase. See KISS
Level 5.7 - Passive Voice and Retained Complements.
19. This is an unusual, idiomatic prepositional phrase for “*all* over the world.”
Ex. 6 - Just for Fun – Shooting Oneself
The answer is that he shot his reflection in the bathroom mirror.
A man walks {into his bathroom} and shoots himself (DO) right [#1] {between the
eyes} using a real gun [#2] {with real bullets}. | He walks out alive [#3], {with no blood}
39
anywhere [#4], | and no, he didn't miss | and he wasn't Superman (PN) or any other
crusader (PN) wearing a cape [#5]. |
How did he do this (DO)? |
Notes
1. “Right” here functions as an adverb. It means “exactly,” and it modifies the following
prepositional phrase.
2. “Gun” is the direct object of “using.” The subject of “using” is “man,” but “man using a real
gun” does not pass the sentence test, so “using” is not a finite verb. It is a verbal, technically,
a gerundive that modifies “man.” Although I have colored “with real bullets” green (thus, as
an adjective to “gun,” I would not argue with anyone who sees it as an adverb to “shoots.”
3. Some people will see “alive” as an adverb to “walks out,” and others will see it as a predicate
adjective in a palimpsest pattern with “walks out” written over “is.”
4. I would ignore this with students who are focusing on S/V/C patterns, but for those who want
a more technical explanation: “anywhere” is an adverb is an ellipsed noun absolute that
functions as the object of the preposition “with” -- “{with no blood *being* anywhere}”
5. “Cape” is the direct object of “wearing.” The subject of “wearing” is “crusader, but “crusader
wearing a cape” does not pass the sentence test. Thus “wearing” is a verbal (a gerundive)
that modifies “crusader.”
KISS Level 2.1.7 - The Subjunctive Mood
T
Thhee K
KIISSSS PPeerrssppeeccttiivvee oonn tthhee SSuubbjjuunnccttiivvee M
Moooodd
Discussions of the subjunctive mood can become very complicated, but from the KISS
perspective what teachers and students need to know is very simple—some verbs in the
subjunctive mood look as if their subjects do not agree with their verbs in number:
If he were here, he would not do that.
In other cases, “be” is used as a finite verb:
Be he devil or angel, she won’t like him.
40
Students are rarely, if ever, taught to use the subjunctive mood. Those who use it have learned it
in the same way that they learned the language—from what they hear or what they read. It is
included in KISS primarily so that students and teachers will recognize these unusual forms as
correct finite verbs. Two exercises are included in each of the grade-level books. Some teachers
may want to skip them; others may want to use additional exercises, either from this site or
elsewhere.
The instructional material was adapted from Wm. H. Maxwell’s Intermediate Grammar. He
calls this the “subjunctive mode” and refers to dependent and independent clauses, but I have
revised his otherwise brief and relatively clear explanation to match KISS terms. You may want
to replace this material with a simpler explanation:
Verbs in the subjunctive mood express a condition that is not true. “If I were you, I would
go fishing.” means that I am not you, but if I were, I would go fishing.
Ex. 1 - From Lassie, Come Home by Eric Knight
1. Joe did not know why (DO), | but it seemed [Adv. to "seemed" as though the
oatmeal were stuck (PA) [#1] {in his throat}]. |
2. "Before, I were working [#2] . | But now I'll have to face ye (DO) {wit it} | -- I'm {on
the dole}. [#3]" |
3. Now she looked [Adv. to "looked" as if she were using [#4] all four feet (DO)]. |
4. [Adv. (subjunctive) to "might have let" Had the man walked {toward her}], she might
have let him place his hand [#5] {on her}. |
5. He shouted it (DO) {with an air} {of proud ownership}, [Adv. to "shouted" as if he
alone [#6] , the Duke [#7] {of Rudling}, were [#8] responsible (PA) {for the tang} {in
the air} and {*for* the gentle warmth} {of the sun}]. |
Notes
41
1. I have explained “stuck” as a (gerundive) that functions as a predicate adjective rather than
considering “were stuck” as a passive verb because the sentence implies the state of the
oatmeal rather than someone or some thing sticking it. The “oatmeal were” is subjunctive
because it wasn’t stuck. [Remember that the major reason for studying the subjunctive
is to note that these verbs are not subject/verb agreement errors.]
2. Grammarians would have fun with this one. It is spoken by Sam Carralough,” and is probably
more a question of dialect than it is of the subjunctive. I’ve included it because it can be
used as a starting point for the dialect present in Lassie, Come Home.
3. Note how this main clause explains what “it” is, and thus can also be viewed as functioning as
an appositive to “it.”
4. “She were” because she wasn’t.
5. “Hand” is the direct object, and “him” is the subject of the infinitive “place.” The infinitive
phrase functions as the direct object of “might have let.”
6. “Alone” will evoke multiple explanations from grammarians. Within KISS, we can explain it
as a post-positioned adjective to “he,” or as an adverb to “were.” (It is not a major question
for students, who can all use “alone” in this sense correctly, so there is no sense in
belaboring the point.)
7. “Duke” is an appositive to “he.”
8. “He were” because he wasn’t.
Ex. 2 - From At the Back of the North Wind by George Macdonald
1. "You are as good (PA) {to your mother} [Adv. to the previous "as" as if you were a
girl (PN) -- nursing the baby [#1] and toasting the bread [#1], and sweeping up the
hearth [#1] ]." |
2. He decided to see [#2] [DO if Diamond's father would do anything (DO) {for any
body else}]. | For [#3] that would be the very best way (PN) to find out [#4] [DO if it
were worth (PA) while [#5] to do anything [#6] {for him}]. |
42
3. Nanny had closed her eyes (DO) [Adv. to "had closed" as if she were tired (PA) or
asleep]. |
4. What (DO) would my master say [Adv. to "would say" if he were to come [#7] back]? |
5. The wind {with its kisses} [#8] makes me feel [#9] [Adv. to "feel" as if I were {in North
Wind's arms}]. |
6. {At length}, it seemed [Adv. to "seemed" as if he were borne (P) up {on the air} and
could almost fly]. |
7. But presently, he felt [Adv. to "felt" as if he were going {to sleep} [#10] ] | and [#11] that
would be to lose so much [#12] [Adv. to "so" that he was not willing to do it [#13] ]. |
8. [Adv. to "not" If I were only a dream (PN)], you would not have been able (PA) to
love me [#14] so. |
9. Well [Inj] , [Adv. to "would wish" if I were *going* [#15] to turn {to an ugly shape
again},] would you still wish [DO I were not a dream (PN)]? |
10. It's [Adv. to "is" as if it were dead (PA)]! |
Notes
1. “Baby” is the direct object of “nursing.” “Bread” is the direct object of “toasting,” and
“hearth” is the direct object of “sweeping.” “Nursing,” “toasting,” and “sweeping” can be
explained in either of two ways. They can be described as verbals (gerundives) that modify
“girl” (or the subject “you”). Or they can be considered as verbals (gerunds) that function as
nouns used as adverbs. See KISS Level Four - Verbals.
2. The verbal (infinitive) “to see” functions as the direct object of “decided.”
3. See KISS Level 3.2.2 - “So” and “For” as Conjunctions.
4. The verbal (infinitive) “to find out” (“discover”) functions as an adjective to “way.”
5. “While” is a noun that functions as an adverb to “worth”—worth how much? Note that the
phrase refers to time, not money.
43
6. “Anything” is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “to do.” This infinitive phrase
functions as a delayed subject—if to do anything for him were worth while. See KISS Level
5.6 - Delayed Subjects and Sentences.
7. This is a tricky one that you will probably not find in grammar textbooks. KISS explains
similar constructions as either ellipsed active voice—he were *going* to come” or as
ellipsed passives—he were *expected* to come back. See Exercise 10 - “To be to” Ellipsed Passive plus an Infinitive? in KISS Level 5.7 - Passive Voice and Retained
Complements. The problem here is that the tense doesn’t work. So here we have to assume a
different ellipsis—“If he were to *have* come back.”
8. Alternatively, “with its kisses” can be described as adverbial to “made.”
9. “Me” is the subject of the verbal (infinitive) “feel.” The infinitive phrase is the direct object of
“makes.”
10. Grammarians will have several explanations of “to sleep.” First “is going to” is often
considered (as it is in KISS) a helping verb. Thus “were going to sleep” could be considered
the finite verb phrase. Alternatively, “to sleep” could be considered a verbal (infinitive) that
functions as an adverb to “were going.” Both of these explanations emphasize “sleep” as a
verb. The infinitive explanation suggests that “to sleep” is the purpose of the going. I’ve
opted for a third alternative, “to sleep” as a prepositional phrase. This perspective
emphasizes “sleep” as a noun, a state of being that the context suggests as not desirable.
11. Does this “and” join two main clauses (as I have marked it), or does it join the following
“that” clause and the preceding “as if” clause (thereby making the “that” clause subordinate?
Either explanation can be supported.
12. Either we consider “so” as an adjective and “much” as a pronoun, or we can consider “much”
as an adjective and “so” as an adverb. The latter implies an ellipsed “stuff” as the noun that
functions as the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “to lose.” The infinitive phrase
functions as a predicate noun after “would be.”
13. “It” is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “to do.” The infinitive phrase functions as an
adverb to “willing,” which can be considered either part of the finite verb or as a verbal
(gerundive) that functions as a predicate adjective.
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14. “Me” is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “to love.” The infinitive phrase functions as
an adverb to “able.”
15. See Exercise 10 (“To be to” - Ellipsed Passive plus an Infinitive?) in KISS Level 5.7 Passive Voice and Retained Complements.
K
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mpplleexxiittiieess ooff PPrreeppoossiittiioonnaall PPhhrraasseess
KISS Level 2. 2. 1. The “To” Problem & Verbs as Objects of Prepositions
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Little words cause the biggest problems. If we wish to enable students to analyze and
discuss real texts, students need to distinguish “to” as a preposition from “to” as the sign of an
infinitive. Note that the instructional material tells students that they are not expected to
remember the term “infinitive.” All they need to learn at this point is that if whatever answers the
question “What?” after “to” is a noun or pronoun, they are dealing with a prepositional phrase
and should put parentheses around it. If whatever answers the question is a verb, they should not.
It takes some practice for most students to both remember this rule and learn to identify
verbs. In a few cases, the distinction between verb and noun is ambiguous. Consider the
sentence: “They went to sleep.” If “to sleep” denoted their purpose for going, “sleep” is a verb;
but if it means the state of being to which they went, it is a noun. (Note the implications of this
for using “state of being” to identify verbs.) Fortunately, there are very few words that involve
such ambiguities.
Overview of Exercises in KISS Level 2.2.1
Exercises One (a & b): “To”—Is It a Preposition?
The primary reason for having students learn to distinguish “to” prepositional phrases from
infinitives at this level is that prepositional phrases almost never function as subjects, predicate
nouns, or direct objects. Infinitives do:
To breathe fresh air is to enjoy life.
Sammy loves to swim.
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Since, in teaching students to identify S/V/C patterns, KISS directs students to ignore the words
that they have identified as prepositional phrases, the students need to be able to recognize
infinitives as subjects, predicate nouns, or direct objects. (Most students can do so without
formally knowing that they are “infinitives.”)
Exercise Two: Verbs as Objects of Prepositions
Originally, this exercise was to be about “to” plus a gerund—which does create a
prepositional phrase. For example, “She loves everything {from boating} {to fishing}.” In real
texts, however, these are few and far between. Thus a ten-sentence exercise based on a real
(long) text might include only four such sentences, the rest being reinforcements of exercises one
and two. On the other hand, KISS Level 1.5 (on prepositional phrases) does not include an
exercise on verbs as objects of prepositions. This exercise could go there, but Level 1.5 presents
students with many other things to learn.
Fortunately, “to” phrases with gerunds as their objects are relatively rare. In collecting
sentences for exercises from Sewell’s Black Beauty, I was surprised by the number of sentences
that included both “to” as a preposition and “to” as an infinitive. I had collected around forty
such sentences when I stopped copying them. On the other hand, in the whole text I found only
eight sentences in which “to” functions as a preposition with a gerund (“-ing” verb) as its object.
In the Gutenberg edition of Spyri’s Heidi, I found none.
Thus this exercise has been redesigned. Each exercise includes at least one example of “to”
plus a gerund, but the repetitions from exercises one and two have been replaced with other
sentences that have gerunds as objects of prepositions:
{After swimming}, they took a nap.
(In making the table), they used a lot of wood.
If they have been working with randomly selected texts, students have probably met this
construction and had little trouble with it except for how to mark the complements (like “table”).
The exercise has been extended to include the even more infrequent constructions in which
infinitives function as objects of prepositions:
They did nothing {but sleep}.
He will do any chores (except to wash the dishes}.
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In Black Beauty I found only about six such sentences with “but” and only two with “except.”
Thus in some exercises based on real texts, sentences may have to be invented in order to include
these constructions.
At this point in their work, students do not need to remember the terms “gerund” and
“infinitive.” (They are the primary focus of KISS Level Four.)
Exercise Three: “To” and “Too”
“To” presents students with an additional problem in that they confuse it with “too.” As the
instructional overhead explains, this results in errors that are readily noted by most readers, not
just because they are “errors,” but because they lead the reader to expect something that does not
appear (“Samantha wanted to go to.”) or hit the reader with a “what” when the reader does not
expect it (“Samantha wanted to go too the park.”)
Some teachers claim that this is not a serious error, and that may be true. But the differences
between “to” and “too” are not that difficult to understand. Thus, people who regularly use these
words incorrectly give the impression of being either uneducated or lazy. As I tell my college
Freshmen, misspellings of “to” and “too” have, and will continue to, make the difference
between an A or a B (or a B and a C) on papers, not just in my English class, but also in papers
for any other course. The errors are very noticeable, and they give the instructor the impression
that the writer is not very careful or concerned with the paper.
Exercise Four: Treasure Hunt and/or Recipe Roster
Like all KISS treasure hunts and/or recipe rosters, this one invites students to see that what
they are learning clearly applies to randomly selected texts and/or to their own writing.
Suggested Directions for Analytical Exercises:
1. Place parentheses ( ) around each prepositional phrase.
2. Underline every finite verb twice, its subject(s) once, and label any complements (“PA,”
“PN,” “IO,” or “DO”).
Probable Time Required:
This depends on how quickly your students can master the distinction. Two or three initial
exercises would probably be a good idea, time permitting. Thereafter, you can expect some
students to make mistakes until they finally get it.
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Ex. 1.a. - Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell
1. My mother whinnied {to me} to come [#1] {to her}. |
2. Are you going to live {next door} [#2] {to me} {in the box}? |
3. {After this} I was sent (P) {to Tattersall's} to be sold [#3]. |
4. Then we were sold (P) {to a fashionable gentleman}, and were sent (P) up {to London}. |
5. He held the oats (DO) {to me}, | and I began to eat [#4] {without fear}. |
6. We shall all have to be judged (P) {according to our works}. |
7. He got {out of the carriage} [#5] and came to speak [#6] {to us}. |
8. It was wisest (PA) always to do my best to please my master [#7]. |
9. He came {to me} next and tried to drag me [#8] {out of the stall} {by force}. |
10. [Adv. to "was" When they brought me (DO) {to James}], he was very angry (PA)
to see such big sticks [#9]. |
Notes
Because this exercise functions on the “to” problem, and because “to” plus a verb is
generally a verbal (infinitive), the following notes assume that, unless otherwise explained.
1. Adverb (of purpose) to “whinnied.”
2. Although I have marked “next door” as an adverbial prepositional phrase, some people may
prefer to explain “next” as an adjective to “door” and “door” as a noun that functions as an
adverb. In either case, grammarians will still have fun explaining the “to me” phrase.
Perhaps the simplest way to do so is to consider it an adverb to “next.”
3. Adverb (of purpose) to “was sent.” Note that the infinitive itself is in passive voice.
4. Alternatively, “to eat” can be explained as a verbal (infinitive) that functions as the direct
object of “began.”
5. Alternatively, “got out of” can be explained as the finite verb phrase (meaning “left” or
“exited.” That would make “carriage” a direct object.
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6. Adverb (of purpose) to “came.”
7. “Master” is the direct object of the infinitive “to please” which functions as an adverb to “to
do.” “My best” is the direct object of the infinitive “to do,” which functions as a delayed
subject to “it.”
8. “Me” is the direct object of the infinitive “to drag.” The infinitive phrase functions as the
direct object of “tried.”
9. “Sticks” is the direct object of the infinitive “to see” which functions as an adverb to “angry.”
Ex. 1.b. - Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell
1. I wish you to pay attention [#1] {to [#2] [OP what (DO) I am going to say {to you}] }. |
2. I should learn [DO what (DO) I wanted to know [#3] ] quickly; | so [#4] now we will
come {to business}. |
3. They were carrying young Gordon (DO) {to the churchyard} to bury him [#5]. |
4. My master went on to break me [#6] {to harness}; | there were more new things (PN)
to wear [#7]. |
5. He was sure (PA) to go [#8] {to the railway station} just [Adv. to "to go" as the train
was coming in]. |
6. It was a great treat (PN) {to us} to be turned out [#9] {into the home paddock or the old
orchard}. |
7. I never had any one (DO), horse or man [#10], [Adj. to "one" that was kind (PA) {to
me}], or [Adj. to "one" that I cared to please [#11] ]. |
8. {In the meantime} he was to get all the practice [#12] {in driving [#13] } [Adj. to "practice"
that could be given (P) {to him}]. |
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9. We should do {to other people} [Adv. to "should do" as we should like [DO they
should do {to us}]]. |
10. As soon [Adv. to the preceding "as" as I was old (PA) enough to eat grass [#14] ] my
mother used to go out {to work} [#15] {in the daytime}, and *used to* come back {in
the evening}. |
Notes
Because this exercise functions on the “to” problem, and because “to” plus a verb is
generally a verbal (infinitive), the following notes assume that, unless otherwise explained.
1. “Attention” is the direct object of the infinitive “to pay,” the subject of which is “you.” The
infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “wish.”
2. At this point in their work, students will be more than normally confused by this. Some
students will mark “to what” as the prepositional phrase, whereas others (correctly) will
want to mark the “to” plus the whole clause as the prepositional phrase. The important thing
is that they see a prepositional phrase here. Clauses as object of prepositions are introduced
in KISS Level 2.2.4 - Advanced Questions about Prepositional Phrases, but are not an object
of focus until KISS Level 3.1.2 - Subordinate Clauses.
3. “To know” functions as the direct object of “wanted.” The preceding “what” functions as a
subordinating conjunction and as the direct object of “to know.”
4. See KISS Level 3.2.2 - “So” and “For” as Conjunctions. Alternatively here, “so” can be
explained as an adverb.
5. “Him” is the direct object of the infinitive “to bury” which functions as an adverb to “were
carrying.”
6. “Me” is the direct object of the infinitive “to break.” The infinitive phrase functions as an
adverb to “went.” If one considers “went on” as a phrasal verb that means “continued,” the
infinitive “to break” would be its direct object.
7. The infinitive “to wear” functions as an adjective to “things.”
8. “To go” functions as an adverb to “sure.”
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9. “Out” can be described as part of a phrasal verb (meaning “put”) or as an adverb. The
infinitive phrase functions as a delayed subject to “It”—“To be turned out . . . was a great
treat.”
10. “Horse” and “man” are appositives to “any one.” (Note the now outdated division into two
words.)
11. The infinitive “to please” functions as the direct object of “cared.” Note that the preceding
“that” functions simultaneously as a subordinating conjunction and as the direct object of “to
please.” In the preceding clause, the “that” functions simultaneously as a subordinating
conjunction and as the subject of the clause.
12. “Practice” is the direct object of the infinitive “to get.” The infinitive can be described as an
adverb to “was.” A more precise description would explain it as a retained direct object in an
ellipsed infinitive construction—“was *supposed* to get.” For more on this, see KISS Level
5.7 - Passive Voice and Retained Complements.
13. “Driving” is a verbal (gerund) that functions as the object of the preposition.
14. “Grass” is the direct object of the infinitive “to eat” which functions as an adverb to the
adverb “enough.”
15. If one considers “work” as a place, then “to work” here is a prepositional phrase. But if one
reads “to work” as performing an action, then “to work” is an infinitive that functions as an
adverb (of purpose) to “used to go.”
Ex. 2 - Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell
1. What (DO) do you say {to calling him Black Beauty [#1]}? |
2. The day came {for going away [#2]}. |
3. But [Adv. to "was" when it came {to breaking [#3] in} ], that was a bad time (PN)
{for me}. |
4. [Adv. to "should be" If I took {to kicking [#4]} ] where should I be? |
5. There is nothing (PN) [Adj. to "nothing" that we can do], {but just bear it [#5] } . |
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6. She should always be nervous (PA) {in riding [#6] } {behind a horse} [Adj. to "horse"
that had once been down]. |
7. I thank you (DO) {for trying my plan [#7] } {with your good horse}. |
8. No one cared {for me}, {except to find out [#8] [DO how fast I could go] }. |
9. {Without waiting [#9] } {for Harry's thanks} Grant was gone (PA). |
10. {Instead of lying [#10] down}, he kept jerking his halter rope (DO) up and down
{through the ring}, and knocking the block (DO) about {against the manger}. |
Notes
1. “Black Beauty” is a predicate noun after an ellipsed infinitive—him *to be* Black Beauty.”
“Him” is the subject of the ellipsed infinitive, and the infinitive phrase functions as the
direct object of the gerund “calling.” The gerund functions as the object of the preposition.
2. “Going” is a gerund that functions as the object of the preposition “for.” Although I see this
phrase as adjectival to “day,” I can see how some people might prefer to consider it
adverbial to “came.”
3. “Breaking (in)” is a gerund that functions as the object of the preposition “to.”
4. “Kicking” is a gerund that functions as the object of the preposition “to.”
5. “It” is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “bear.” The infinitive phrase functions as the
object of the preposition “but,” and the “but” phrase modifies “nothing.”
6. The verbal (gerund) “riding” functions as the object of the preposition “in.”
7. “Plan” is the direct object of the verbal (gerund) “trying,” which is the object of the
preposition “for.”
8. The verbal “to find out” (“discover”) functions as the object of the preposition “except.” The
prepositional phrase modifies “cared.”
9. The verbal (gerund) “waiting” functions as the object of the preposition “Without.” (There is
no comma after “thanks” in the electronic edition I used. Until students study the passive
voice (KISS Level 5.7}, I would also accept “was gone” as the finite verb phrase.
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10. The verbal (gerund) “lying” functions as the object of the preposition “Instead of.” Some
grammar texts list “kept” as a helping verb and some do not. If we do not consider it to be
one, then “jerking” and “knocking” are verbals (gerunds) that function as the direct objects
of “kept.”
KISS Level 2.2.2 - Preposition (or Subordinate Conjunction)?
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Most grammar textbooks give students sanitized, simplistic sentences for exercises. Thus in
an exercise on prepositional phrases (if they ever get to prepositional phrases), these textbooks
will not include in an exercise a sentence in which “after” is used as a subordinate conjunction.
Similarly, in an exercise on subordinate clauses, they will not use “after” as a preposition. In
learning to deal with real texts, however, students need to learn to make the distinction. At this
level, students need simply learn that if whatever answers the question “What?” after a
“preposition” is a sentence, then the construction is not a prepositional phrase. You can tell them
that it is a subordinate clause, and that they will learn more about subordinate clauses in KISS
Level Three, but the focus at this point should be on their ability to identify the prepositional
phrases.
Ex. 1 - Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell
1. I had not eaten {since the early morning}. |
2. There [#1] was a dreadful sound (PN) [Adv. (time) to "was" before we got {into our
stalls}]. |
3. {Since then} I have seen many horses [#2] much alarmed and restive {at the sight or
sound} {of a steam engine}. |
4. I never knew {till now} the utter misery (DO) {of a cab-horse's life}. |
5. Old Max told me (IO) all this (DO), [Adv. [#3] to "was" for it happened a good while
[NuA]
ago]. |
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6. He rides very little now, [Adv. (time & cause) to "very little" since the poor young
master was killed (P) ]. |
7. I listened {to my rider's footsteps} [Adv. (time) to "listened" until they reached the
house (DO)]. |
8. Oh! [Inj] how I listened {for the sound} {of horse, or wheels, or footsteps}! |
9. I had not been {in a field} [Adv. (time) to "not" since I left poor Ginger (DO) {at
Earlshall}]. |
10. {At last} {after a terrible struggle} I threw him (DO) off backward. |
11. The oak fell right [#4] {across the road} just {before us}. |
12. [Adv. (time) to "grew" After we had been out two or three times [NuA] together] we
grew quite friendly (PA). |
Notes
1. For an alternative explanation, see: KISS Level 2.1.3 - Expletives (Optional).
2. At this KISS level, expect students to explain “horses” as a direct object. At KISS Level Four,
they will learn about ellipsed infinitives. In this case, “horses” is the subject of an ellipsed
“be,” and “alarmed” and “restive” function as predicate adjectives after the infinitive—“I
have seen horses be alarmed and restive.” The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object
of “have seen.”
3. See also KISS Level 3.2.2 - “So” and “For” as Conjunctions.
4. “Right” and “just” function as adverbs to the prepositional phrases that follow them.
Ex. 2 - From At the Back of the North Wind by George Macdonald
1. He wanted to see [#1] [DO how things looked {since last night}]. |
2. How long [#2] it is [Adv. to "long" since I had anything (DO) to eat [#3] ]! |
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3. {Before the end} {of the month}, Ruby had got a great deal [NuA] thinner (PA) | and old
Diamond *had got* a good deal [NuA] fatter (PA). |
4. This is my old home (PN) [Adj. to "home" before [#4] we moved {into the city}. |
5. Then {after a time}, he stood {in the middle} {of the room} and told them (IO) a nice
fairy story (DO). |
6. [Adv. to "sang" After the new baby came], Diamond sang {to her} [#5]. |
7. And here is the book {for you}, full [#6] {of pictures and stories}. |
8. He was sitting {by the fire} and looking rather miserable (PA) [Adv. to "sang" for [#7]
his head ached]. |
9. But {at once}, sharp {as a knife} [#8] , the wind came {against his little chest and bare
legs}. |
10. Often there was hay (PN) {at little Diamond's feet} [Adv. to "was" as he lay {in bed}]. |
11. {From her head} streamed out her black hair {in every direction} {like dark clouds}. |
12. Then {at last}, he would scramble {out of the hay}, shoot {like an arrow} {into his
bed}, cover himself (DO) up, snuggle down, and think [DO what a happy boy (PN)
he was]! |
Notes
1. “To see” is a verbal (infinitive) that functions as the direct object of “wanted.”
2. If we consider this “how long” to mean “how long a time,” then “time” becomes an ellipsed
predicate noun and “long” becomes an adjective.
3. The verbal (infinitive) “to eat” functions as an adjective to “anything.”
4. You probably will not find “before” as a subordinating conjunction that joins an adjectival
clause to words (other than time words) in grammar textbooks, but this clause certainly
modifies “home.”
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5. “To her” can be described either as an indirect object or as an adverb.
6. See KISS Level 5.5 - Post-Positioned Adjectives.
7. See KISS Level 3.2.2 - “So” and “For” as Conjunctions.
8. Some grammar texts prefer to explain “as a knife” as an ellipsed subordinate clause (“as a
knife *is sharp*”). In KISS, either explanation is acceptable.
KISS Level 2. 2. 3 - Embedded Prepositional Phrases
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“Embedding” is a concept, not a construction, but it is an extremely important concept. It
simply means that a grammatical construction has been put into the “bed” of another S/V/C
pattern. Any modifier can be viewed as embedded. Consider the sentences
They live in a big house. It is brown.
They live in a big brown house.
In the second version, “brown” has been taken from its separate pattern, the “It is” has been
deleted, and “brown” has been embedded in the first sentence. Similarly, a subordinate clause
that functions as the direct object in another clause is embedded in that clause. We do not usually
talk about embedding in these simple sentences, but English sentence structure is actually based
on a very limited number of constructions. The complexity of our sentences results from the
embedding of one construction within another. Although it is not essential to teach the concept of
embedding at this level, it will help students understand how all the words in a “sentence” chunk
to the main S/V/C pattern. For example, in the sentence
MR. JEREMY bounced up {to the surface} {of the water},
{like a cork and the bubbles} {out of a soda water bottle}.
the concept of embedding lets students see that “out of a soda water bottle” modifies “cork” and
“bubbles” and is thus embedded in the “like” phrase. The “like” phrase then connects to
“bounced” as an adverb. Similarly, “of the water” modifies “surface,” so it is embedded in the
“to the surface” phrase which modifies “bounced.”
In the analysis keys, embedded phrases, and the phrases they are embedded in, are denoted
by underlining. The grade-level books each contain six exercises, in part because this is the last
main sub-level in Level 2.2. (KISS Level 2.2.4 includes advanced questions that teachers may or
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may not want to have their students look at in this point in their work.) Because they can be used
as a general review, there are three sentence-based exercises (# 1, a, b, & c) in each grade-level
book. The next two exercises (#2, a & b) are passages for analysis; the last exercise is a
Treasure Hunt.
Suggested Directions for Analytical Exercises:
1. Underline subjects once, finite verbs twice, and label complements (“PA,” “PN,” “IO,”
“DO”).
2. Place parentheses around each prepositional phrase. Draw an arrow from the beginning of
each phrase to the word it modifies. Underline any embedded phrases and the phrases they
are embedded in.
Probable Time Required:
Although it will help students later understand the embedding of clauses, it is not required at
this KISS level. In a single-year framework, I’d skip embedded phrases. In a longer curriculum
design, these exercises can also be used for review.
Ex. 1.a - Based on Introductory Lessons in English Grammar
1. The dew fell {into the heart} {of a rose} and lay {in a blissful dream}. |
2. The young travelers visited nearly all the ports (DO) {of the world}. |
3. A dainty white village looks down {upon the bright blue waters} {of the Mediterranean}. |
4. A big parrot was solemnly blinking his eyes (DO) {in a window} {of the next house}. |
5. The broken clouds sailed off {in crowds}, {across a sea} {of glory}. |
6. Some flowers grow best {in the deep shades} {of the forest} and beautify the lonely
places (DO) and hidden nooks (DO). |
7. A great yellow cat sat {on the sill} {of our kitchen window}. |
8. A tiny yellow warbler built a nest (DO) {in a little bush} {in our front yard} [#1]. |
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9. The lovely mermaids once sat {on the rocks} {by the ocean} [#2] and braided their
curious sea-green hair (DO). |
10. My dear cousin and I played {at the end} {of the lake}. |
11. A big buzzing bumble-bee flew {to the top} {of the tulip tree}. |
12. Fierce winds often sweep {over the desert} and fill the air (DO) {with thick clouds} {of
sand}. |
13. A lively young turtle suns himself (DO) {on a mossy log} {in that pond} [#3]. |
Notes
1. Instead of viewing “in our front yard” as an adjective to “bush”—and thus embedded, some
people may see it as functioning as an adverb to “built.” Either explanation should be
accepted.
2. As with “in our front yard,” some people may prefer to explain “by the ocean” as an adverb to
“sat.”
3. As in the first two notes, “in that pond” may be explained as an adverb to “suns.”
Ex. 1.b. - From Lassie, Come Home by Eric Knight
1. Once, {at a fork} {in the road}, Rowlie turned his van (DO) east [NuA] . |
2. {In the delicate membrane} {between those pads} {on the right forefoot} a thorn was
festering. |
3. And certainly, {in that particular village}, they would have known {about any such
important matter} {as the resale} {of Lassie} [#1]. |
4. Rowlie turned his wagon (DO) out {on the road}, | and soon there [#2] was the steady
clop-clop (PN) {of Bess's hooves} {on the flinty way} [#3]. |
5. Then, {without hesitation}, she struck {down the road} {to the south} [#3]. |
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Notes
1. Note that the “as” phrase modifies the adjective “such” in the preceding phrase.
2. For an alternative explanation of “there” see KISS Level 2.1.3 - Expletives.
3. Some people will see the “on” phrase as adverbial to “was,” and, although I do not agree, I
would accept that explanation. (The difference is not worth the argument.) Similar
alternatives appear in the following sentence. Did she strike to the south? Or does “to the
south” describe the road? In this case, the alternative explanations seem equally valid.
Ex. 1.c. - From Heidi by Johanna Spyri
1. Peter generally took his quarters (DO) {for the day} {at the foot} {of a high cliff}. |
2. Miss Rottenmeier experienced an extreme disappointment (DO), [Adv. to
"experienced" for [#1] she had hoped {for an explanation} {of the great mystery}]. |
3. Heidi discovered a little basket (DO) {with twelve round white rolls} {for the
grandmother}. |
4. [Adv. to "filled" When the tidy pack lay ready (PA) [#2] {on the ground},] Clara's heart
filled {with pleasure} {at the thought} {of her little friend's delight}. |
5. First came a heavy coat {for Heidi}, {with a hood}, [Adj. to "coat" which Clara meant
her to use [#3] {on visits} {to the grandmother} {in the winter}]. |
6. Deta waited about ten minutes [NuA] to see [#4] [DO if the children were coming up
behind {with the goats}]. | [Adv. (cause) to "climbed" As she could not find them
(DO) anywhere], she climbed up a little *bit* [NuA] higher to get a better view [#5]
{down the valley} {from there}, and peered {from side} {to side} {with marks} {of great
impatience} {on her countenance}. |
Notes
1. See also KISS Level 3.2.2 - “So” and “For” as Conjunctions.
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2. “Ready” is a predicate adjective in a palimpsest pattern in which “lay” is written over “was.”
See KISS Level 2.1.4 - Palimpsest Patterns.
3. “Her” is the subject of the infinitive “to use.” The infinitive phrase functions as the direct
object of “meant.”
4. The infinitive “to see” functions as an adverb of purpose to “waited.”
5. “View” is the direct object of the infinitive “to get.” The infinitive phrase functions as an
adverb of purpose to “climbed.”
Ex. 2.a. - A Passage for Analysis—The Pledge of Allegiance to the Flag
I pledge allegiance (DO) {to the flag} [Adverb to "pledge" or adjective to
"allegiance"] {of the United States} [Adjective to "flag"] {of America} [Adjective to
"United States"] and {to the republic} [Adverb to "pledge" or adjective to "allegiance"] [Adj.
to "republic" {for which} [Adverb to "stands"] it stands]: one nation [#1] {under God}
[Adjective to "nation"], indivisible [#2], {with liberty and justice} [Adjective to "nation"]
{for all} [Adjective to "liberty" and "justice"].|
Notes
1. Appositive to “republic”
2. Post-positioned adjective to “nation,” and thus also to “republic.”
Ex. 2.b. - From Andrew Lang’s “Toads and Diamonds”
The younger daughter, [Adj. to "daughter" who was the very picture (PN) {of her
father} {for courtesy and sweetness} {of temper}], was withal one (PN) {of the most beautiful
girls} ever seen [#1]. | [Adv. to "doted" As people naturally love their own likeness (DO)],
the mother doted {on her elder daughter} and {at the same time} had a horrible aversion
(DO) {for the younger}. | She made her eat [#2] {in the kitchen} and work continually. |
The King's son, [Adj. to "son" who saw five or six pearls [#3] and as many diamonds [#3]
come [#3] {out of her mouth}], desired her to tell him [#4] [DO how that happened]. |
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She thereupon told him (IO) the whole story (DO). | The King's son fell {in love} {with
her}, and, considering [#5] {with himself} [DO of "considering" that such a gift was worth
(PA) more [#6] {than any marriage portion} [#7] ], conducted her (DO) {to the palace} {of
the King} his father [#8], and there married her (DO). |
Notes
1. The phrase “ever seen” is a reduction of the subordinate clause “who was ever seen” and
modifies “girls.” It is, therefore, embedded in the “of” phrase. Although I would not explain
that to students working at KISS Level Two, I would accept “of the most beautiful girls ever
seen” as a prepositional phrase.
2. “Her” is the subject of the infinitives “eat” and “work.” The infinitive phrase functions as the
direct object of “made.”
3. Many students will (as I initially did) underline “pearls” and “diamonds” as subjects and also
underline “come” twice as the finite verb that goes with them. “Come,” however, is a verbal
(infinitive) here. We can verify this by replacing “pearls” and “diamonds” with a pronoun—
which would have to be “them” and not “they.” Thus “pearls and ...diamonds come” is the
core of an infinitive phrase that functions as the direct object of “saw.”
4. “Her” is the subject, “him” is the indirect object, and the clause is the direct object of the
infinitive “to tell.” The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of “desired.”
5. “Considering” is a gerundive that modifies “son.”
6. “More” is a pronoun that functions as a noun used as an adverb.
7. Some people prefer to explain “than” in this case as a subordinate conjunction in an ellipsed
clause—“than any marriage portion was worth.”
8. Some students will mark the last phrase as “{of the King his father}.” Technically, they have a
good argument because “his father” is an appositive embedded in the prepositional phrase. If
the students have not yet studied appositives, either answer should be accepted.
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KISS Level 2. 2.4 - Prepositional Phrases - Advanced Questions
N
Nootteess ffoorr T
Teeaacchheerrss
KISS Level 2.2.4 is more for teachers and parents than it is for students. In analyzing real,
randomly selected texts, students who have mastered KISS Level 2.2.1 (The “to” problem) and
KISS Level 2.2.2 (Preposition or Subordinate Conjunction) will probably find that they can
easily identify more than 95% of the prepositional phrases in any text. As usual in KISS, you
should always remind students that there are some things that they are expected to always get
right, and there are other things that they are expected to get wrong—at least until they have
thoroughly mastered KISS Level Five. KISS Level 2.2.4 suggests the kinds of things that
students should be expected to get wrong at this point in their work.
Constructions that students have not yet studied also function as objects of prepositions, and,
obviously, we should expect students to make mistakes in analyzing them. These include
subordinate clauses, two of the three verbals (gerunds and infinitives), and noun absolutes. The
exercises in this section include only gerunds and subordinate clauses—the two constructions
that students are most likely to run into. The functions of all of these constructions as objects of
prepositions is presented again, in the study of those constructions.
In the “complete” books, this level consists of three exercises, one on gerunds, one on
subordinate clauses, and one on ellipsed objects of prepositions. (See below.) You may what to
show your students a few of the exercises and briefly explain them now. Doing so will show
students that you really do know what they are expected to miss, and why.
Note that the only “instructional material” for this section is about gerunds with
complements, and it is presented to students as “Unusual Prepositional Phrases.” Otherwise,
these exercises follow the KISS principle of teaching students to apply what they have already
learn to examples that are not normally presented in textbooks.
See also:
KISS Level 3.2.1 - Semi-Reduced and Other Ellipsed Clauses
KISS Level 4 - Infinitives as Objects of Prepositions
KISS Level 5.8 - Noun Absolutes as Objects of Prepositions
Suggested Directions for Analytical Exercises:
62
1. Place parentheses around each prepositional phrase.
2. Underline subjects once, finite verbs twice, and label complements (“PA,” “PN,” “IO,”
“DO”).
Probable Time Required:
This section is primarily an explanation for students of mistakes that they will be expected to
make until they get to clauses and verbals. You may want to have them do an exercise or two,
but essentially, this section could be just the focus of one in-class illustration.
Ex. 1 - Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell
1. I shall expect them to answer [#1] {for my soul}, [Adv. to "shall expect" if I can't get a
chance (DO) {of saving it [#2] }]. |
2. He seemed furious (PA) {at their having moved}, and {with whip and rein}
punished them (DO) brutally. |
3. The longer [#3] [Adj. to "longer" *that* I lived {at Birtwick}], the more [#3] proud (PA)
and happy (PA) I felt {at having such a place [#4] }. |
4. {After giving us a slight look [#5] } he called a groom to take us [#6] {to our boxes}, and
invited John to take some refreshment [#6]. |
5. He was quite too short (PA) to do anything [#7] {in the way} {of grooming Ginger and
me [#8] }. |
6. He had still a proud way (DO) {of holding his head and arching his neck [#9] }. |
Notes
1. “Them” is the subject of the infinitive “to answer.” The infinitive phrase functions as the
direct object of “shall expect.”
2. “It” is the direct object of the gerund “saving.”
3. “The” before “longer” makes it a noun. That we could have a “that” before “I lived” suggests
that this clause functions as an adjective to “longer.” “The longer” functions as a noun used
as an adverb (of cause) to “the more,” which similarly functions as an adverb to “proud” and
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“happy.” This construction is idiomatic, and, in this case, reversible—“The longer I lived at
Bertwick, the more proud and happy *that* I felt at having such a place.” Indeed, many
native speakers would accept this construction with two implicit subordinate clauses and no
main clause -- “The longer [*that* I lived at Bertwick], the more [*that* I felt proud and
happy at having such a place.]” From this perspective, we might want to say that “the
longer” and “the more” function as coordinating conjunctions, similar to “Not only ... but
also...” and “Neither ... nor ....”
4. “Place” is the direct object of the gerund “having.”
5. “Look” is the direct object, and “us” is the indirect object of the verbal (gerund) “giving.” The
gerund phrase functions as the object of the preposition “After.”
6. The two infinitive phrases in this sentence could probably evoke a great deal of discussion
(and thus disagreement) from grammarians. In the first one, “us” is the direct object of the
infinitive “to take.” The questionable part is the function of the infinitive. Personally, I see it
as adverbial to “called” because it states why he called the groom. Thus I’d say that
“groom” alone is the direct object. I could, however, easily see how other people would
consider “groom” to be the subject of the infinitive. From this perspective, the entire
infinitive phrase would be the direct object of “called.” If one interprets “called” as being
essentially the same as “asked,” then this perspective makes sense. KISS principle of
alternative explanations thus would allow either perspective.
The second infinitive phrase is similar. There would be no argument that “refreshment”
is the direct object of “to take.” In this case, however, I personally lean toward “John” as the
subject of the infinitive and the infinitive phrase as the direct object of “invited”—which is
meaningfully much closer to “asked” than “called” is. I would, however, readily accept the
explanation that “John” by itself is the direct object and that “to take some refreshment”
functions as an adverb to “invited.”
7. “Anything” is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “to do.” The infinitive phrase
functions as an adverb to “too” which, in turn, modifies “short.”
8. “Ginger” and “me” are direct objects of the verbal (gerund) “grooming” which functions as
the object of the preposition “of.”
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9. “Head” is the direct object of “holding” which is a gerund that is one of the two objects of the
preposition “of.” “Neck” is the direct object of “arching,” a gerund that is the other object of
the preposition “of.”
Ex. 2 - Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell
In these sentences “what” functions simultaneously as the subordinating conjunction and
either the subject or the complement within its clause. Students who have not yet studied
subordinate clauses will often consider just the “what” as the object of the preposition.
1. He must never start {at [OP what (DO) he sees] }, nor speak {to other horses}, nor
bite, nor kick, nor have any will (DO) {of his own}. |
2. She had a good idea (DO) {of [OP what was coming] }. |
3. I am never afraid (PA) {of [OP what (DO) I know] }. |
4. It won't stand [Adv. to "not" when things come to be turned (P) inside out and put
down (P) {for [OP what (PN) they are] }. |
"Come to be" means "become," and "put down" means "recorded."
5. The sides {of the box} were not so high (PA) {but [OP that I could see all (DO)
[Adj. to "all" that went on] {through the iron rails} [Adj. to "rails" that were {at the
top} ]] }. |
The “but” phrase chunks as an adverb to “so.” Without the “but” the “that” clause would
need a “not” (that I could not see...) and would be adverbial to the “so.” “Went on” is a
phrasal verb that means “happened.”
6. So she went on {till [OP after he was buried (P) ] }. |
In this sentence, “went on” means “continued.” It is unusual to see a clause that begins with
“after” and functions as a noun.
7. The children had many consultations (DO) together {about [OP what (DO) father
and mother would do] }, and {*about* [OP how they could help to earn money]
}. |
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“Money” is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “to earn.” The infinitive phrase
functions as the direct object of “could help.” (The subject of the infinitive and indirect
object of “could help” is an ellipsed “them.”
Ex. 3 - Based on Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell
Note: In most analysis keys, prepositions with ellipsed objects are simply explained either as
phrasal verbs or as adverbs.
1. Any hare [Adj. to "hare" they can find] will do {for the dogs and men} to run [#1] {after
*a hare*}. |
2. James brought Merrylegs (DO) {in *the stable*} and put {on *his head*} his halter
(DO). |
3. All [Adj. to "all" that could be piled (P) up {inside *the cab*) {on the front seat}] were
put (P) {in *the cab*}. |
4. I have never snapped {at him} {since *that time*}, | and I won't either. |
5. They got {on *my head*} the halter (DO) and the bar (DO) {into my mouth}; | then
one dragged me (DO) {along *the path*} {by the halter}, another flogging [#2]
{behind *me*}. |
Notes
1. The infinitive “to run” can be explained as an adverb (of purpose) to “will do.” However, a
better explanation is to consider “dogs” and “men” as the subjects of the infinitive and the
whole infinitive phrase as the object of the preposition “for.”
2. “Another flogging behind” is a noun absolute that functions as an adverb to “dragged.”
K
KIISSSS L
Leevveell 22.. 33.. A
Addddiinngg T
Thhrreeee L
Leevveell FFiivvee C
Coonnssttrruuccttiioonnss
N
Nootteess ffoorr T
Teeaacchheerrss
These concepts are optional in the sense that students do not need to understand them in
order to advance to KISS Level Three. Thus, for example, if you are trying to start the KISS
66
Approach with middle school students and you want to enable the students to be able to identify
clauses, you should probably skip these concepts. On the other hand, if you are beginning in
primary school, you have plenty of time to include these concepts. The concepts, moreover,
explain constructions that are frequently used in narrative writing, which is typically what
primary students are asked to do. Because these constructions are so simple, the instructional
materials and exercises are included here, even though they are technically Level Five
Constructions. Nouns Used as Adverbs are very simple and raise few questions.
Interjections are the most complex of the three. For one, they slide into adverbs. Consider
the following two sentences:
a.) Duh, do you think so?
b.) Really, do you think so?
“Duh” is an obvious interjection, but many grammarians would consider “really” as an adverb,
especially since it can be moved in the sentence—“Do you really think so?” This is, however,
just a question of how the words should be named (categorized). As always in cases like this,
KISS allows either explanation.
More debatable is that KISS considers some prepositional phrases to be functioning as
interjections:
{Of course} he voted in the last election.
{In fact}, he voted in the last election.
One can, in KISS, explain such phrases as adverbs, but when the phrase modifies the sentence as
a whole, rather than a specific word or construction within the sentence, KISS accepts either
explanation. (Many linguists call these “sentence modifiers.) Still more debatable is the KISS
explanation of some clauses as interjections. (See KISS Level 3.2.3—Interjection? Or Direct
Object?)
Direct Address (“Sally, close the door.”) is, if one thinks about it, a specific type of
interjection. As such, it could be dropped from the KISS toolbox, but the concept is so simple,
and it is so widely used in grammar textbooks, that it seemed better to keep it.
Exercises three and five are devoted to punctuation, but they can also be used as a second
exercise on interjections and direct address, respectively.
Suggested Directions for Analytical Exercises
67
1. Place parentheses (around each prepositional phrase).
2. Underline every finite verb twice, every subject once, and label complements (“PA,” “PN,”
“IO,” or “DO”).
3. Label each interjection (“Inj”), each example of Direct Address (“DirA”), and every noun
used as an adverb (“NuA”). [As appropriate]
Probable Time Required: For most students, these should require only one or two simple
exercises.
Ex. 1 - Nouns Used as Adverbs From Heidi by Johanna Spyri
1. I have done my share (DO) these last four years [NuA] | and now it is your turn (PN)
to provide [#1] {for her}. |
2. The uncle had risen {during her last words} | and now he gave her (IO) such a look
(DO) [Adv. to "such" that she retreated a few steps [NuA] ]. |
3. Heidi was awakened (P) early next morning [NuA] {by a loud whistle}. |
4. She remembered [DO how she had come {up the mountain} the day [NuA] before]. |
5. Four days [NuA] later the sun was shining | and the tight-packed frozen snow was
crackling {under every step}. |
6. You are nearly twelve years [NuA] old (PA), my boy [DirA]. |
7. All afternoon [NuA] the uncle hammered around. |
8. "I shall count {on you} next winter [NuA], neighbor [DirA]." |
9. About a week [NuA] later, Mr. Candidate asked to see Mrs. Sesemann [#2]. |
10. The grandmama sent {for Heidi} every day [NuA] {after dinner}. |
Notes
1. The verbal (infinitive) “to provide” functions as an adjective to “turn.”
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2. “Mrs. Sesemann” is the direct object of the infinitive “to see.” The infinitive phrase functions
as the direct object of “asked.”
A Difference
of Opinion
1896
by
IInntteerrjjeeccttiioonnss—
—N
Nootteess ffoorr PPaarreennttss aanndd T
Teeaacchheerrss
Sir Lawrence
Alma-Tadema
(1836-1912)
“Simple” Interjections
Most, if not all grammar textbooks focus on the definitions of words. They do not really
examine sentences. Thus, in most such books you will find a definition of “interjection” similar
to that in The Modern Writer’s Handbook by Frank O’Hare and Edward A. Kline (N.Y.:
Macmillan, third edition, 1993):
“A word that expresses emotion and has no grammatical connection
to the sentence in which it appears.” (627)
There are two basic problems with such definitions. First, the books rarely make clear (or agree
on) what words can function as interjections. Second, they overlook the fact that some of the
“words” included in the examples are not single words. They are phrases, and, in some cases,
complete sentences.
The Modern Writer’s Handbook gives only a few examples, all of which are single words.
So, to get a better perspective, we might consider an older text, The New College Grammar, by
Mason Long (N.Y. The Ronald Press, 1935). I chose this text because it neatly addresses “Seven
Parts of Speech [That Can Be] Used as Interjections” (321).
1. Nouns:
Nonsense! Goodness!
2. Pronouns:
I! Who!
3. Adjectives
Good! Fine!
4. Verbs:
See! Halt!
Infinitives:
To think! To yield!
5. Adverbs
Well! Never!
6. Prepositions:
In! Beyond!
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7. Conjunctions:
If! But!
My point here is simply to suggest that the grammarians disagree among themselves, and there is
no clarity, if we look as interjections as single words, as to which words can be and which
cannot.
I would suggest that the problem arises because the textbooks focus on the “words.” They
usually state that interjections are not connected to the rest of the sentence, but, since they never
teach students how to see those connections in the first place, the books simply slide past this
part of the definition. If we want to look at interjections as words, then I would suggest that any
word can function as an interjection.
Imagine a conversation between a man and a woman. He says, “You should be happy!” She
responds, “Happy! What have you done to make me happy?” Is she not using “Happy!” as an
interjection? The essence of an interjection is not so much the “word” or the expression of
emotion. (Sentences can express emotion without including interjections. The essence of an
interjection is that the word (or phrase, or sentence) is not syntactically connected to the other
words in the sentence. It is, in fact, a word or construction that is “thrown into” the sentence
structure.
Although they usually define interjection as a “word,” the examples that many textbooks
give include phrases and even sentences. Long (above) includes “See!” and “Halt!” as examples
of verbs that can function as interjections, but both of those verbs can also be seen as complete
sentences. Grammarians love to categorize, and Long was no exception. He followed his basic
definition with “Seven Classes of Interjections According to Sense” (322-3). More important
than his categories are his examples, for he includes several phrases: “Woe is me!” “All Hail!”
“Well done!” “Good gracious!” “Good Heavens!” “Fie on you!” and “Can it Be!” He also
includes a prepositional phrase -- “For shame!”
It is, I would suggest, silly to try to make students memorize a list of words that can function
as interjections. A few examples will help them, of course, but once they get the idea, most
students will easily recognize the interjections in:
“Oh, fish feathers!” said Stuart. “Size has nothing to do with it.”
From this perspective, interjections are simply words (or other constructions) that do not
chunk to (modify) another word or construction within a sentence.
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“Within” is purposefully bold, because once we realize that constructions themselves can
function as interjections, another question arises. Many prepositional phrases, for example, do
not modify a word or construction within a sentence, they modify the entire sentence:
They were, of course, late.
In truth, I don’t know where he went.
“Of course” and “in truth” could be explained as adverbial modifiers of the verbs in these
sentences, but as such, they really modify the entire sentence. In essence, they interject the
writer’s or speaker’s attitude toward what the sentence states.
Most linguists prefer the name “sentence modifiers” for phrases, clauses, and other
constructions that function in this way. The KISS objective, of course, is to keep things simple,
and thus it makes more sense simply to extend the traditional concept of “interjection” to
prepositional phrases, clauses, infinitives, or any other constructions that function as “sentence
modifiers.” The linguists, after all, call them “sentence modifiers” because they are “thrown
into” the sentence in the same way that interjections are.
“Advanced” Interjections
If we agree that prepositional phrases (and even sentences) can function as interjections, we
can simplify and clarify some advanced questions that many grammar textbooks never even deal
with. These are explained in the Master Books for KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or Direct
Object? and KISS Level 3.2.4 - “Tag” and Other Questions about Clauses.
Ex. 2 - Interjections from Heidi by Johanna Spyri
Some of these sentences were modified to include interjections that are not in Heidi.
1. Oh [Inj], how beautiful (PA) the snow looks! |
2. Why [Inj], one might think [DO I was telling you (IO) the silliest things (DO) ]. |
3. Golly [Inj], everything is so wonderful (PA) now! |
4. Oh [Inj] well [Inj], that is better (PA). |
5. Gee [Inj], I have the same dream (DO) every night [NuA]. |
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6. Um [Inj], does it really live way up there? |
7. Well [Inj], well [Inj], what (DO) does that mean? |
8. Yes [#1] indeed [Inj]! I shall do [Adv. to "shall do" as you say], Mr. Sesemann [DirA]. |
9. Oh [Inj], there is our little Swiss girl (PN). |
10. Bärli and Schwänli, {of course} [Inj], are not forgotten (P); | they will spend the
winter (DO) {in a good solid stable} [Adj. to "stable" that is being built (P) {for
them}]. |
Note
1. Although “Yes” and “No” are normally considered adverbs, can they not also function as
interjection?
Ex. 3 - The Punctuation of Interjections: From Growth in English
1. Oh [Inj], how cold (PA) it is! |
2. The guide, {of course}, [#1] is an excellent rider (PN). |
3. Why [Inj], what (DO) do you mean? |
4. Well [Inj], I hardly think [DO I can go]. |
5. {Of course}, [#1] it is too late (PN) {for the boys to go [#2] }. |
6. No [#3], it is not too late (PN) {for them}. |
7. Will you close the window (DO), please [#4]? |
8. Well [Inj], I suppose [DO you have ordered your tickets (DO)]. |
9. No [#3], I have not attended {to the matter}. |
10. Oh [Inj], how glad (PA) we are to see you [#5] again! |
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Notes
1. Some grammars do, and some grammars to not indicate that prepositional phrases can function
as interjections. KISS allows, and in the case of “of course,” this explanation. (The
grammars that do not consider it an interjection usually call it an adverbial phrase.)
2. The infinitive “to go” can be seen as an adverb to “late,” or, with “boys” as its subject, as the
object of the preposition.
3. Some grammars do not give explanations of “Yes” and “No.” Some consider them adverbs, or
they can be considered interjections.
4. Some grammars may consider “please” as a reduction of a subordinate clause—“if it please
you.” There is probably no harm in explaining it as an interjection, especially since that
explanation is much simpler.
5. “You” is the direct object of the infinitive “to see.” The infinitive phrase functions as an
adverb to “glad.”
Ex. 4 - Direct Address from At the Back of the North Wind
1. [DO "What is the matter (PN), mother [DirA] ?"] cried Diamond. |
2. "Oh [Inj] dear North Wind [DirA]!" (DO) [#1] cried the boy. |
3. "*You* Stop! | *You* stop! little girl [DirA]!" [ [#2] shouted Diamond, starting [#3] {in
pursuit}]. |
4. "Still I cannot believe [DO you are cruel (PA), North Wind [DirA] ]!" |
5. "Why [Inj], Diamond [DirA], child [#4] !" she said {at last}. |
6. "*You* Come in, my little man [DirA]," [ [#2] he said]. |
7. "Isn't it jolly (PA), father [DirA]!" [ [#2] he said]. |
8. "I am not a fairy (PN)," [ [#2] answered the little creature]. | "You [#5] stupid
Diamond [DirA], have you never seen me (DO) before?" |
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9. "Nanny [DirA], do you know me (DO)?" [ [#2] asked Diamond]. |
10. "No, Diamond [DirA]. I am only waiting {for a moment} to set you [#6] down." |
Notes
1. The words in quotation marks are the direct object of “cried.”
2. Here we have a question about clauses that I have not seen a grammar book address. We could
say that the entire quotation is the direct object of “shouted.” But this type of thing with
quotations happens frequently. Ultimately, therefore, KISS prefers an alternative
explanation. The clauses within the quotation are considered main clauses, and the
“shouted” clause is explained as an interjection. For more on this, see KISS Level 3.2.3 Interjection? Or Direct Object?.
3. “Starting” is a verbal (a gerundive) that modifies “Diamond.”
4. “Child” can be explained as another instance of Direct Address, and/or as an appositive to
“Diamond.” The words in quotation marks are, of course, the direct object of “said.”
5. This “You” is an appositive to the following “you.”
6. “You” is the direct object of the verbal (infinitive) “to set.” In context, the infinitive phrase
functions as an adjective to “moment.” Out of context, this may be hard to follow, but the
North Wind means that she is seeking the right moment in which to set Diamond down. Out
of context, “for a moment” may be seen as adverbial (time) to “am waiting.”
Ex. 5 - Adapted from Voyages in English - Fifth Year
1. All right [Inj], Dorothy! [DirA] I will answer the bell (DO). |
2. Francis, [DirA] *you* name some (DO) {of the articles} made [#1] {from iron}. |
3. This cotton, Alice, [DirA] came {from Texas}. |
4. Josephine, [DirA] who invented the phonograph (DO)? |
5. Regina, [DirA] what is the capital (PN) {of the United States}? |
6. I wish you (IO) a happy birthday (DO), Mother [DirA]. |
7. Many oysters are caught (P) {in Chesapeake Bay}, Geraldine [DirA]. |
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8. Martin, [DirA] *you* please [#2] go {to the store} {for me}. |
9. Catherine, [DirA] what are the four points (PN) {of the compass}? |
10. I beg your pardon (DO), Mr. Joyce [DirA]. |
Notes
1. “Made” is a verbal (gerundive) that modifies “articles.”
2. “Please” is an idiomatic reduction of “If it pleases you.” That clause would function as an
adverb, so the easiest explanation here is to consider “please” an adverb.
Ex. 6 - Mixed from The Secret Garden by Frances Hodgson Burnett
1. [DO "Things are changing {in this house}, Mr. Roach [DirA],"] [#1] said Mrs.
Medlock. |
2. A little *bit* [NuA] later the nurse made Colin ready [#2]. |
3. Oh! [Inj] is it! |
4. [DO "This is one (PN) {of his good days}, sir [DirA],"] [#1] she said {to Dr. Craven}. |
5. "Oh, [Inj] Mary! [DirA] [Adv. to "think" If I could get {into the secret garden}] I think
[DO I should live to grow [#3] up]!" |
6. And Mrs. Medlock took Mary (DO) {by the arm} and half [NuA] pushed, half [NuA]
pulled her (DO) {up one passage} and {down another} [Adv. to "pushed" and "pulled"
until she pushed her (DO) in {at the door} {of her own room}]. |
7. [DO "I am sorry (PA) to hear [#4] [DO you were ill (PA) last night [NuA] ], my boy
[DirA]
,"] [#1] Dr. Craven said a trifle [NuA] nervously. |
8. "My word! [Inj] she's a plain little piece (PN) {of goods}!" |
9. But just that moment [NuA] the robin gave a little shake (DO) {of his wings}, spread
them (DO) and flew away. |
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10. "Well, [Inj] sir, [DirA]" [ [#5] answered Mrs. Medlock,] "you'll scarcely believe your
eyes (DO) [Adv. to "will believe" when you see him (DO)]. |
Notes
1. For an alternative explanation of this clause structure, see KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or
Direct Object?
2. Students will thoughtfully baulk at explaining "Colin" as the direct object of "made." They
sense that what she made is "Colin ready." In KISS Level 4, "ready" is explained as a
predicate adjective to an ellipsed infinitive "to be." The subject of that infinitive is "Colin,"
and the infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of "made."
3. The verbal (infinitive) "to grow" functions as an adverb of result to "should live."
4. The verbal (infinitive) "to hear" functions as an adverb of cause to "sorry."
5. KISS explains this clause as an interjection. See KISS Level 3.2.3 - Interjection? Or Direct
Object?
A
Appppeennddiixx
In addition to explaining the codes and colors used in the analysis keys, this key is also
called “The KISS Grammar Toolbox.” It presents, in very brief form, all the essential concepts
that students will need to learn in order to explain, and thus intelligently discuss, how any word,
in any English sentence, functions within that sentence.
The KISS Grammar Toolbox
With the exception of passive voice (which is required to understand retained complements),
this list includes all the concepts and constructions that students need in order to explain the
function of any word in any sentence. In effect, it is the KISS Toolbox. The following colors and
codes are used throughout the analysis keys in the KISS Workbooks.
Two KISS Concepts
Compounding – Coordinating Conjunctions
Whereas most grammar texts explain compounding in multiple places (compound subjects;
compound verbs, compound clauses, etc.) KISS treats compounding as a concept. Any identical
parts of speech (such as adjective and adjective) or any construction can be compounded, usually
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by using "and," "or," or "but"). Once students can be expected to identify the constructions that
are being joined, the conjunctions are coded orange.
Ellipsis – The Omission of Understood Words
The analysis keys indicate words that are ellipsed by placing them between asterisks –
*You* close the door.
KISS Levels One and Two
Subjects and finite verbs are underlined, with subjects colored green and finite verbs blue.
(Html does not allow for double underlining of finite verbs.) Complements are in brown and
labeled: PN (Predicate Noun); PA (Predicate Adjective); IO (Indirect Object); and DO (Direct
Object). A (P) after a finite verb indicates that it is in passive voice.
Adjectives and Adverbs are not always identified, but when they are, adjectives are in green
and adverbs in blue. In some of the upper level keys, adjectives and adverbs are identified simply
by being in smaller type to show how much of the text students can already be expected to
analyze. Sometimes they are not colored because the result is a confusion of colors. Likewise,
once students have some experience identifying prepositional phrases, I do not usually ask them
to draw arrows from simply adjectives and adverbs to the words they modify. Doing so often
results in a confusion of lines on the students' papers.
Prepositional Phrases are identified {by braces}. The words in adjectival phrases are in
green; adverbial; phrases are in blue because we are more interested in the functions of phrases
than in the functions of individual words. Embedded phrases and the phrases they are embedded
in are underlined when the directions specifically call for identifying the embeddings.
KISS Level Three
Subordinate clauses are identified (P) {by red brackets}. The function {of the clause}
follows the opening bracket (DO). Subordinate conjunctions [Adj. to "conjunctions" that have
no other function (DO)] are {in bold red}. A vertical line "|" identifies the end (DO) {of each
main clause}. |
KISS Level Four
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The functions of verbals (gerunds, gerundives, and infinitives) are explained in notes.
KISS Level Five
All these constructions are identified by bracketed, superscript links that lead to the basic
instructional material about them.
Expletives (It and There) [Exp]
Noun Used as an Adverb [NuA]
Interjection [Inj]
Direct Address [DirA]
Appositive [App]
Delayed Subject [DS]
Post-Positioned Adjective [PPA]
Retained Complements [RDO], [RPN], [RPA]
Noun Absolute [NAbs]
If additional explanation is needed, links are included in notes at the bottom of the page.
Using the KISS Analysis Keys
Originally, there were analysis keys for each KISS level for each KISS exercise. They used
a lot of paper so they have been replaced by one key, a key in which every word in every
sentence is explained. My assumption is that parents and teachers will usually know which
words students should be expected to explain. In many cases, the keys include notes about this.
But this can be confusing for teachers who are not themselves comfortable with KISS
terminology. Consider a couple of examples.
An exercise in KISS Level 1.5 (Adding Prepositional Phrases) includes the sentence:
The corn which had been sowed in the field over the field-mouse's home grew up high
into the air, and made a thick forest for the poor little girl, who was only an inch high.
The first thing we should note is that this is a very sophisticated sentence for a grammar
textbook. The directions for this exercise are:
1. Place parentheses ( ) around each prepositional phrase.
2. Underline verbs twice, their subjects once, and label complements (“PA,” “PN,” “IO,”
or “DO”).
In the analysis key, you will find it analyzed as:
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The corn [Adj. to "corn" which had been sowed (P) {in the field} {over the fieldmouse's home}] grew up high {into the air}, and made a thick forest (DO) {for the
poor little girl}, [Adj. to "girl" who was only an inch [NuA] high (PA).] |
Based on the directions, you should expect the students to analyze the following:
The corn which had been sowed {in the field} {over the field-mouse's home}
grew up high {into the air}, and made a thick forest (DO) {for the poor little
girl}, who was only an inch high (PA).
In other words, you can ignore the rest of the analysis. It is there as information for parents and
teachers who want to know how to analyze every word. You are, of course, always welcome to
ask questions on the KISS Grammar List or the Yahoo Grammar Group about sentences in
exercises (or any other sentences).
Creating Directions for Your Students
The directions for KISS analytical exercises are in the Master Books for each level and also
in the exercises in the workbooks. Don’t forget, however, that you can adapt these directions to
suit the needs of your own students. The only things I would suggest is that once students get to
prepositional phrases, the following basic sequence should usually be used. (Numbers 3 and 4, of
course, would be added in KISS Level 3.)
1. Place parentheses ( ) around each prepositional phrase.
2. Underline verbs twice, their subjects once, and label complements (“PA,” “PN,” “IO,” or
“DO”).
3. Place brackets [ ] around each subordinate clause. If the clause functions as a noun, label
its function.
4. Place a vertical line after each main clause.
Because students will already have the sentences to be analyzed one paper in front of them, they
will not have to copy sentences, etc. It therefore should take them very little time to do these four
things, and these four mark out the major parts of most sentences.
Directions for KISS Punctuation Exercises
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Punctuation exercises are very easy for anyone to create. Simply select a short text, remove
all the punctuation marks, change capital letters to lower case, and give the students the text with
the following directions:
Directions: The punctuation and capitalization in the following text was lost.
Please fix it (right on this page).
These exercises will be most effective if they are followed by a class discussion of various
changes that students made, particularly if the students are also shown the punctuation in the
original passage.
Directions for Sentence-Combining Exercises
The following directions are standard for KISS sentence-combining exercises. I give them
here so that you can use them to create your own exercises without confusing students by
changing directions that they may be accustomed to. These are, I should note, the directions that
were used for the "Aluminum" passage created by Roy O'Donnell.
Read the passage all the way through. You will notice that the sentences are
short and choppy. Study the passage, and then rewrite it in a better way. You may
combine sentences, change the order of words, and omit words that are repeated
too many times. But try not to leave out any of the information.
Directions for De-Combining Exercises
Many of the sentences in the following selection are long and complex.
Rewrite the passage, breaking each sentence into as many shorter sentences as
you can. Then consider the stylistic differences between the original and your
rewritten version.
Although textbooks tend to focus on combining exercises, de-combining may be as or more
important than combining exercises. Developmental psychologists such as Piaget and Vygotsky
claimed that reversibility -- the ability to undo a mental operation -- is a sign of cognitive
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mastery. More specifically in terms of syntactic maturity, de-combining exercises can help
students see the relationships between ellipsed and reduced forms (such as verbals) and the
simpler "underlying" sentences. Finally, decombining exercises give students a somewhat
different perspective on style since they will find some sentences very difficult to decombine.