Download Biology Final Review

Biology Final Review
Radioactive decay – Measures the breakdown of Carbon 14 or other radioactive material in an
organism – Carbon 14 breaks down into nitrogen
-Half life of Carbon 14 is 5730 years – if u had 12 grams and now its 6 then that sample
is 5730 yrs old – 3 grams = 11460 yrs old
Half–life – amount of time it takes for half of the radioactive material to decay (radioactive
dating)
Homologous Development – Parts that are descended form a common structure –
Comparative Anatomy – Evidence form anatomy
-Example of structures that share a common origin are the limbs of birds, animals and
humans – all common to forearm – Similarities in functions do not indicate common
ancestry - Example – Wing of a bird and wing of a butterfly
Fossil record – Fossil is the trace of an organism preserved or petrified
-Trapped in resin, sediment, make impressions or prints/tracks
-Found in sedimentary rock – falls in water and sediment is put on top
-Calcium that’s in the organisms bone or shell is slowly replaced by hard minerals
Primitive Atmosphere – No free oxygen, CH4 (Methane), NH3 (Ammonia), Hydrogen, H2O –
proposed by Russian biochemist Alexander Oparin
-4.6 million years ago – lightning, volcanic eruptions, meteorites, UV light, high surface
temp.
-Oxygen was in metal oxides or water – not gas yet
Comparative Embryology – Studying of developing organisms. The more similar development
is the close the relationship is.
Comparative Biochemistry – The closer the DNA sequences – closer species
-Similar proteins in species are compared for their sequence of amino acids
Protein cytochrome c in -Human/Chimp – all 104 match
-Human/Dog – 91 match
-Human/Rattlesnake – 84 match
-Structure of hemoglobin is closer in humans and chimps – 99% DNA match (80% w/ all
other animals)
Natural Selection – Darwin – In nature there is a tendency towards overproduction of offspring
– individuals with variations to the environment which are favorable live longer and
produce more offspring with the suitable variation passed on to most of those offspring
-A population will change as it becomes more adapted to its environment
Nucleotides - The subunits of nucleic acids; composed of a phosphate, a sugar, and a nitrogencontaining base. The fundamental structural unit of the nucleic acid group of organic
macromolecules. Some nucleotides are involved in information storage (as nucleotides in
DNA), protein synthesis (as nucleotides in RNA), and energy transfers (as single
nucleotide ATP, GTP, and double nucleotide NADH and NADPH).
Amino Acids - The subunits (monomers) from which proteins (polymers) are assembled. Each
amino acid consists of an amino functional group, and a carboxyl acid group, and differs
from other amino acids by the composition of an R group.
Lipids - One of the four classes of organic macromolecules. Lipids function in the long-term
storage of biochemical energy, insulation, structure and control. Examples of lipids
include the fats, waxes, oils and steroids (e.g. testosterone, cholesterol).
-The chemicals found in life are – proteins, lipids, carbs., nucleic acid
RNA – 1st genetic molecule
-RNA and DNA work together to produce enzymes (chains of amino acids) and enzymes
to allow for replication of DNA and RNA
-Short sequences of RNA can from spontaneously
-Can act like an enzyme
-Can make own complimentary copies
Antibiotics - Substances produced by some microorganisms, plants, and vertebrates that kill or
inhibit the growth of bacteria.
Divergent Evolution - The divergence of a single interbreeding population or species into two
or more descendant species
Convergent Evolution - The development of similar structures in distantly related organisms as
a result of adapting to similar environments and/or strategies of life. Example: wings of
birds and insects, the body shape of dolphins, sharks, and the extinct marine reptiles
known as ichthyosaurs.
Adaptive radiation – when a species comes to a new area and spreads out over different
climates/areas and they evolutionary diverge and become different do to the different
environments – finches
- all came from one but because of the different food/ locations/ climates of the islands
they started to evolve separately and different from one another to meet the habitats
Punctuated Equilibrium - A model that holds that the evolutionary process is characterized by
long periods with little or no change interspersed with short periods of rapid speciation.
Gradualism – Gradual evolution over time
Structural Adaptation – internal or external anatomic adaptation by an organism that promotes
its fitness in its environment; ex: the long, narrow tongue of woodpeckers, is helpful in
obtaining food
Prokaryote - Type of cell that lacks a membrane-bound nucleus and has no membrane
organelles; a bacterium. Prokaryotes are more primitive than eukaryotes. Cells lacking
membrane-bound organelles and having a single circular chromosome, and ribosomes
surrounded by a cell membrane. Prokaryotes were the first forms of life on earth,
evolving over 3.5 billion years ago.
Eukaryote - A type of cell found in many organisms including single-celled protists and
multicellular fungi, plants, and animals; characterized by a membrane-bounded nucleus
and other membraneous organelles; an organism composed of such cells. The first
eukaryotes are encountered in rocks approximately 1.2-1.5 billion years old. PICTURE
Symbiotic Hypothesis – Prokaryotes formed eukaryotes – proof is double layering of golgi
bodies and the mitochondria
Vestigal Structures – Structures in an animal that are no longer needed but were needed earlier
in evolution – Example – Pigs – little toe things hang off foot
Industrial Melanism – Pollution from the industrial revolution maid the moth darker in color to
blend in with the darker trees because of their color change
Bottleneck Effect - Drastic short-term reductions in population size caused by natural disasters,
disease, or predators; can lead to random changes in the populations
Founder’s Effect - The difference in gene pools between an original population and a new
population founded by one or a few individuals randomly separated from the original
population, as when an island population is founded by one or a few individuals; often
accentuates genetic drift.
Genotype – The genetic (allelic) makeup of an organism with regard to an observed trait.
Phenotype – The observed properties or outward appearance of a trait. The physical expression
of the alleles possessed by an organism.
Binomial Nomenclature – Each species of plant and animal receives a two-term name; the first
term is the genus, and the second is the species.
Kingdom – Five broad taxonomic categories (Monera, Protista, Plantae, Fungi, Animalia) into
which organisms are grouped, based on common characteristics.
Phylum – The broadest taxonomic category within kingdoms
Class – Sub category of phylum
Order – Sub category of class
Family – Sub category of order
Genus – Sub category of family
Species – Sub category of species – most specific
Taxonomy – Science of classification of living organisms that creates a hierarchy based on their
similarities and differences
Cnidarian(Phylum) – Ex. – Jellyfish, Hydra, Coral
- Radial Symmetry -Hollow body with one opening – mouth
- Incomplete digestive tract
-Polyp is essentially a flipped medusa
- First group with tissues -Outer tissue is ectoderm
- Stinging cells – cnidocytes on end of tentacles
-Inner Tissue is endoderm
Arthropod – Bilateral symm. –Complete digestive tract
Most species – 1,000,000
- Segmented bodies
- More specialization with particular functions can be carried out
internal fertilization - Have air tubes
covering made of chitin – for protection
- Reproduce with
- All appendages are jointed - Hard outer
- Shedding of exoskeleton is called molting –
Free from water because the sperm doesn’t need to swim to the egg
Classes – Arachnida – cephalothorax & abdomen -no gills – 4 pairs of legs on
cephalothorax
-Insecta – Segmented into a head, thorax, and abdomen -one pair antennae
-3 pairs of legs on the thorax -0, 1, or 2 pairs of wings –Trachea for breathing
-Chylopoda – centipedes
-Many Segments and one head -2 antennae -2 pairs of legs
per segment
-Diplopoda - Millipedes – same as centipede except 2 pairs of legs per segment
-Crustacea – Crayfish, lobster, shrimp, daphnia – cephalothorax and abdomen
-2 pairs of antennae
-More than 4 pairs of legs
-Gills for respiration
Annelida – Segmented worms: Earthworms and leeches
- Bilateral symmetry - Complete Digestive system - Coelom – cavity lies completely
within the mesoderm - Mesoderm and endoderm interact to form different organs
They need a circulatory system because their gut is surrounded by solid tissue which
prevents rapid diffusion
- Segmented bodies allow for diversification – segmentation is also internal – some
organs are repeated for each section (nephridia)
-Segmentation can also be found in arthropoda and chordata
-
-Gas exchange through the skin – primitive brain and ventral nerve chord
-Muscle system is in two layers – Outer, circular muscles and inner, longitudinal muscles
-Hermaphrodites while some species has separate sexes
Echinoderm – Starfish
- Radial symm. as an adult and bilateral as a developing embryo
- Complete dig tract
- No head or brain
- Ventral mouth, dorsal anus
- Water vascular system – series of H20 filled tubes and tube feet – don’t need an
excretory system
- Nerve ring around mouth that radiates to other parts of the body from the ring
- Sexually reproduce – external fertilization
-Regeneration – piece breaks off and they can grow back like they were
Speciation – process by which new species are formed - The evolutionary formation of new
biological species, usually by the division of a single species into two or more genetically
distinct ones
Coevolution – The evolution of two or more interdependent species, each adapting to changes in
the other. It occurs, for example, between predators and prey and between insects and the
flowers that they pollinate.
Asymmetry – no symmetry
Radial Symmetry – wheel like; body parts radiate from central hub
Bilateral Symmetry – mirror like halves when cutting lengthwise along the midline
Spherical Symmetry – sphere-like; body parts radiate from a central point
Moneran Kingdom – All are bacteria and prokaryotes. Only method of reproducing is by binary
fission. Has no organized nucleus. DNA is a circular strand of a chromosome
Protista Kingdom – Either multi or unicellular. They are Eukaryotic and contains a nucleus.
Can be autotrophic or heterotrophic. Plant –Algae, Animal – Protozoan, Fungus – slime
molds
Plant Kingdom – Cell walls of cellulose, Alternation of Generation (plant spends part of life
cycle with on e set of chromo. and another part with 2 sets of chromo. Nonvascular plants
– Mosses, liverworts (lives in moist environment). Vascular plants without seeds – still
need moist environ. for reproduction. Seed plants – Gymnosperms
Fungi Kingdom – most are multi-cellular, terrestrial, found on dead organic matter. Body made
up of hyphae. Has mycelium (mat of filaments), cell walls made of chitin
Animal Kingdom – All are heterotrophic, so ingest food then ingest inside their body. All are
multi-cellular, have no cell walls.
Autotroph – organism that makes it own food through chemosynthesis or photosynthesis
Heterotroph – organism that need complex organic molecules for energy and must feed on other
organisms.
Definition of Species – Group of organisms that ca interbreed, produce offspring that are fertile,
they cannot breed with another group, has a unique gene pool.
Vertebrata – organism that has a backbone part of endoskeleton, made up of cartilage or bone
that provides protection for the spinal cord. Allows growth
Porifera – sponges (sessile)
Chordata – has Notochord, dorsal nerve cord, gill slits once in their lifetime
Notochord – dorsal cartilaginous rod which gives support. Firm yet flexible
Dorsal nerve cord – group of nerves forming a hollow tube
Anterior – front end of animals with bilateral symmetry
Posterior – back end of animals with bilateral sym
Dorsal – top or back of an animal with bilateral sym
Ventral – bottom or front of an animal with bilateral sym
Tracheal tubes – Some arthropods with branching tube ending in tiny air sacs: for vertebrates
the tube conducts air to the lungs
Segmentation – allows different parts of the body to perform a specific job/function rather then
the one body part doing everything
Hermaphrodism – an organism with both male and female reproductive organs
Endoskeleton – internal framework or support system
Virus – small and simple that has a core of DNA or RNA, genes that contain protein coat and
enzymes to take over host cell. Protects genetic material so it can invade a cell
Cellulose – plant walls
Gram Positive Bacteria – Bacteria that has a inner cell wall made up of polysaccharides that
pick up the color purple when stained
Gram Negative bacteria – Other bacteria that have a second cell wall(capsule) of
polysaccharides bound with lipids that appears pink when stained. Harder to treat these
bacteria b/c has 2 cell walls to penetrate
Cocci Bacteria – circular shaped bacteria (coccus)
Spirillum Bacteria – spiral-shaped bacteria (spirochete)
Binary Fission – method by which prokaryotes/bacteria reproduce where their DNA is
replicated and distributes equally to the daughter cells.
Omnivore – organism that eats both plants and animals
Herbivore – plant eating animals
Carnivore – meat eater/consumer
Conjugation – sexual process in some organisms such as fungi in which genetic material is
transferred from one cell to another by cell to cell contact
Budding – asexual reproduction in which a new organism is produced by means of an outgrowth
that breaks apart from the parent
Lichens – an organism which is a symbiotic relationship b/w fungus and algae. Fungus provides
a home + moisture to the algae and the algae provides food for the fungus
Sporulation –
Chlorophtyta – green algae that first invaded land
Sporangium – reproductive structure for plants that produce spores
Chlorophyll – green substance in producers that traps light energy from the sun, which is then
used to combine carbon dioxide and water into sugars in the process of photosynthesis
Plasmodium vivax –slime mold – unicellular blob w/ thousands of nuclei formed when food and
water are scarce – growth w/o division
Amoeba proteus – This very large polypodial amoeba usually lives in very clear and welloxygenated water. It feeds on other protozoan, algae, rotifers and even other smaller
amoeba. The animal is continually throwing out pseudopodia in all directions with one
pseudopodium becoming dominant for a short while.
Paramecium Caudatum – ciliate, has oral groove for feeding, oval shape, lives in freshwater
Trypanosome – parasitic flagellate class of protozoans; disease caused is sleeping sickness.
Ploem- food transporting tissue in vascular system in plants
Slime Mold – mold, grows on decaying vegetation
Water Mold – parasitic or saprobic, lives in fresh water, moist soil, Phylum Oomycota
Black Bread Mold – zygomycetes – zygote fungi – sexual and asexual repro.
Mushroom – Basidiomycota, fleshy fungi
Agar – gelatinous material, from marine algae
Puffballs – fungi, balloon shaped, when popped releases spores
Basidiomycota – fungi bearing spores, Puffballs, smuts, rusts, mushrooms, toadstools, rack
fungi
Sporozoa – all parasitic protozoans, malaria
Diatom – single cell, microscopic, colonial algae
Euglenophyta – free swimming flagellate, algae
Rhizopoda – class of Protozoa, have pseudopodia, radiolaria, amoeba
Jointed Appendages – have body parts with joints, Arthropods
Complete Digestive System – two way system, found in all animals more complex than
Annelida
Bryophyta – mosses, liverworts
Sporophyte – spore producing life cycle of plants
Zygotes – cell formed by fertilized egg
Antheridium – sperm producing organ, found in seedless plants, fungi, algae
Rhizome – horizontal underground stem, roots grow out from its nodes
Endosperm – same as the cotyledon, food source for developing plant embryo in seed
Chlamydomonas – algae, found in fresh water and damp soil, flagellate
Xylem – transports water in vascular system of plant
Bacillus – rod shaped bacteria, occur in chains
Protozoan – group of single celled, eukaryotic organisms, amoeba, ciliates, flagellates,
sporozoan
Algae – mainly aquatic, eukaryotic, photosynthetic organisms, single cell to Giant Kelp
Ringworm – Infection of skin due to a parasitic worm
Pseudopodia – found in amoeba, functions for movement and feeding by engulfing the food
Ascomycota – yeast, sac fungi, morels, truffles, reproduction with ascus, contains ascospores
Deuteromycota – Phylum, Fungi Imperfecti, asexual reproduction
Euglena – simple, autotrophic protista
Flagellate – having a whip like tail
Ciliaphora – class in Protozoa, have cilia
Dinoflagellata – fluorescent protozoa
Incomplete Digestive System – one way system, can not eat continuously, found in Sponges,
Cnidarians, and flatworms.
Rhodophyta – eukaryotic algae, mostly marine
Gametophyte – gamete producing phase in plants
Spore – small, reproductive body, produced by bacteria, fungi, algae, non-flowering plants
Rhizoids – root like structures found in non-vascular plants, mosses, liverworts, fern
gametophytes
Archegonium – egg producing organ, found mosses, ferns, gymnosperms
Seed Coat – coat around outside of seed to protect it
Pollen Grain – microspore, male gametophyte in seed plants
Embryo – a living organism’s early stage of development
Fertilization – process of fusion of two haploid sex cells (egg and sperm) to form a zygote
Stigma – in a flower, the rough or sticky structure found at the tip of the style
Style – the neck of a flower’s ovary
Anther – the pollen-bearing part of a stamen in flowering plants
Polar Nuclei – two nuclei in the center of the ovule of a flower’s pistil (female)
Radicle – 1st part of the embryo to emerge form the seed; becomes the primary root fo the plant
Epicotyl – in plants, a structure that forms a pair of small leaves that will open early in
development
Cleavage – process of rapid cell division that splits the zygote into many smaller cells to form a
multi-cellular blastula (the overall structure does not change in size)
Differentiation – developmental process by which generalized cells become specialized in order
to form such structures as the brain and spinal cord
Gastrulation – the entire process of cell movement and the formation of a triple-layered embryo
Blastocoel – hollow cavity in the interior of a blastula
Gastrula – a cup-shaped form of the developing embryo; contains ectoderm, endoderm, and
mesoderm
Ectoderm – outermost tissue layer of an organism
Placenta – tissue formed for exchanging of gases, nutrients, and wastes between the mother and
embryo
Neural Plate – folds and fuses to form a hollow tube, the neural tube; develops into the brain
and spinal cord in the early vertebrae embryo
Vegetative Reproduction – asexual reproduction in plants that produces new plants form
leaves, roots, or stems
Cambium – lateral meristem in plants. Types include: vascular, cork, and intercalary
Bark – outer layer of the stems of woody plants; composed of an outer layer of dead cells (cork)
and an inner layer of phloem PICTURE
Transpiration – in plants, the loss of water through pores in stomata
Apical meristem – meristem (embryonic tissue) at the tip of a shoot or root that is responsible
for increasing the plant's length
Companion cells – Specialized cells in the phloem that load sugars into the sieve elements and
help maintain a functional plasma membrane in the sieve elements. PICTURE 1
PICTURE 2
Ovary – structure in a flower’s pistil in which the female gametes are produced. In sexually
reproducing animals, the structure that produces eggs
Pollen Tube – Structure produced by the tube nucleus in the pollen grain through which the
sperm nucleus (or nuclei in angiosperms) proceeds to travel through to reach the egg.
PICTURE
Pistil – a flower’s female reproductive organ; produces female gamete
Filament – Slender, thread-like stalks that make up the stamens of a flower; topped by the
anthers. PICTURE
Micropyle – The end of the embryo sac where the egg cell and synergids are located
Tube Nucleus – One of the cells in the male gametophyte in seed plants. The tube nucleus grows
through the stigma, style, and into the ovule, clearing the way for the sperm nuclei to
enter the embryo sac. PICTURE
Hypocotyl – stalk like part of the embryo that will eventually become the upper part of the
primary root and the lower part of the stem
Cotyledon – A leaf-like structure that is present in the seeds of flowering plants; appears during
seed germination and sometimes is referred to as a seed leaf. PICTURE
Morphogenesis – development of the species-specific form or structures of the organism
Embryology – The branch of biology that deals with the formation, early growth, and
development of living organisms.
Morula – The solid-ball stage of the pre-implantation embryo. PICTURE
Blastula – A ball of cells surrounding a fluid-filled cavity (the blastocoel) that is produced by the
repeated cleavage of a zygote. PICTURE
Endoderm – The inner layer of cells in embryonic development that gives rise to organs and
tissues associated with digestion and respiration. Also, the inner tissue layer in flatworms.
Mesoderm – The middle layer of cells in embryonic development; gives rise to muscles, bones,
and structures associated with reproduction. The middle embryonic tissue layer. Cells and
structures arising from the mesoderm include the bone, blood, muscle, skin, and
reproductive organs.
Fragmentation – asexual reproduction in which whole, new adults are formed from fragments
of the original organism.
Archenteron – The central cavity of the gastrula, which ultimately becomes the intestinal or
digestive cavity.
Parthenogenesis – A form of reproduction in which an unfertilized egg develops into a new
individual, occurring commonly among insects and certain other arthropods (drones and
the queen bee)
Cortex – 1) The outer part of an organ, e.g., the adrenal cortex, which produces several steroid
hormones; 2) in plants, the region of the stem or root between the epidermis and the
vascular bundle(s). PICTURE
Mersimatic Tissue – Embryonic tissue located at the tips of stems and roots and occasionally
along their entire length; can divide to produce new cells; one of the four main tissue
systems in plants. PICTURE
Translocation-Cohesion Theory – Describes the properties of water that help move it through a
plant. Cohesion is the ability of water molecules to stick together (held by hydrogen
bonds), forming a column of water extending from the roots to the leaves; adhesion is the
ability of water molecules to stick to the cellulose in plant cell walls, counteracting the
force of gravity and helping to lift the column of water.
Sieve Tube – Phloem celled long tube. See sieve elements.
Endodermis – A layer of cells surrounding the vascular cylinder of plants. PICTURE
Auxin – plant hormone with growth – regulating effects, including the growth of stems toward
light
Endothermic – animal that maintains a constant body temperature through internal metabollic
activity regardless of external conditions
Saprophyte – organism that feeds on decaying organic matter, they recycle nutrients and prevent
decaying matter from enveloping earth
Lytic cycle of a virus – reproductive process in which a virus takes over all metabollic activities
of a cell, replicates itself many times, and destroys the host cell
Development – series of changes an organism undergoes in reaching its final adult form, one of
four functions that determines an organism as a living creature
Gibberellin – plant hormone that promotes growth and development
Root Hairs – tiny fine out growths of the epidermal cells of plants, provide large surface area for
absorbing water and dissolving ions
Guard Cells – specialized cells in plants that surround each stoma, regulating its size and
preventing the plant from dying out
Lysogenic cycle of a virus – occurs when a cell containing a provirus repreduces, the host cell
lyses and new virsues are released to become part of the chromosomes of other cells