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Summaries of .. .. Francy Stroop .. 2018642 .. . an English Grammar for students in higher education C O N TR A S TIV E G R A MM A R 1B SUMMARIES OF: ‘AN EN GLISH GRAMMAR FOR STUDENTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION’ (BY P.L. KONING AND DR. P.J. VAN DER VOORT) Summaries of .. .. Francy Stroop .. 2018642 .. . an English Grammar for students in higher education Summaries of .. .. Francy Stroop .. 2018642 .. . an English Grammar for students in higher education Contents 16 The noun........................................................................................................................... 5 16.1 Classes of nouns .............................................................................................................. 5 16.2 How to make the plural.................................................................................................... 5 16.3 Plural of nouns ending in –y ............................................................................................ 5 16.4 Plural of nouns ending in –o ............................................................................................ 5 16.5 Plural formed by –‘s ......................................................................................................... 5 16.6 The plural of nouns ending in –f or –fe............................................................................ 6 16.7 Irregular Plurals................................................................................................................ 6 16.8 Nouns having one form for singular and plural. ............................................................... 6 16.9 Nouns that are plural in BrE but singular in Dutch. ......................................................... 7 16.10 Nouns that are singular in Dutch but plural in BrE. ....................................................... 7 16.11 Collective nouns............................................................................................................. 7 16.12 Plural noun when more than one ................................................................................... 7 16.13 Masculine / feminine / neuter........................................................................................ 8 16.14 Different words for male and female beings ................................................................... 8 16.15 One noun for man and woman ...................................................................................... 8 17 The genitive ......................................................................................................................9 17.1 The form of the genitive .................................................................................................. 9 17.2 The use of the genitive ..................................................................................................... 9 17.3 Propernouns .................................................................................................................... 9 17.4 Nouns denoting persons or animals ................................................................................. 9 17.5 Nouns denoting things ..................................................................................................... 9 17.6 Nouns denoting time ....................................................................................................... 9 17.7 The genitive in a number of fixed expressions: ................................................................. 9 17.8 The classifying genitive .................................................................................................. 10 17.9 The independent genitive ............................................................................................... 10 17.10 The local genitive ......................................................................................................... 10 17.11 The post-genitive ......................................................................................................... 10 18 The definite article .......................................................................................................... 11 18.1 The use of the definite article before nouns used in a general sense................................ 11 18.2 Use of the definite article before school, etc. .................................................................. 11 18.3 The definite article before names of regular meals .......................................................... 11 18.4 The definite article before names of means of transport ................................................. 11 18.5 The definite article before geographical names ............................................................... 11 18.6 Definite article before names of language ....................................................................... 11 18.7 Definite Article before most and half ............................................................................. 12 18.8 Definite article before last or next .................................................................................. 12 Summaries of .. .. Francy Stroop .. 2018642 .. . an English Grammar for students in higher education 18.9 Definite article before a superlative ................................................................................ 12 18.10 No definite article in a number of expressions.............................................................. 12 18.11 Definite article in English but not in Dutch ................................................................. 12 19 The indefinite article ...................................................................................................... 13 19.1 A/an .............................................................................................................................. 13 19.2 Indefinite article before a number of nouns ................................................................... 13 19.3 Indefinite article after as ................................................................................................. 13 19.4 The indefinite article after with and without ................................................................... 13 19.5 The indefinite article before hundred and thousand. ...................................................... 13 19.6 The indefinite article for Dutch ‘een zekere’ ................................................................... 13 19.7 The indefinite article in a number of expressions ........................................................... 13 19.8 Indefinte article before part of ....................................................................................... 14 20 The numeral ................................................................................................................... 15 20.1 Categories of numerals ................................................................................................... 15 20.2 Cardinals ........................................................................................................................ 15 20.3 Ordinals ......................................................................................................................... 15 20.4 Dates ............................................................................................................................. 15 21 The adjective................................................................................................................... 16 21.1 Adjectives without a following noun .............................................................................. 16 21.2 Degrees of comparison .................................................................................................. 16 21.3 -er/est or more/most? ................................................................................................... 16 21.4 Spelling changes before –er/est...................................................................................... 16 21.5 Irregular degrees of comparison ..................................................................................... 17 21.6 Adjectives used as nouns ................................................................................................ 17 21.7 Adjectives denoting nationalities .................................................................................... 18 21.8 one/ones after adjectives ............................................................................................... 18 21.9 Nouns used as adjectives ................................................................................................ 19 21.10 hoe langer hoe… / hoe… hoe… / des te … ............................................................... 19 22 The adverb ...................................................................................................................... 20 22.1 The form of the adverb .................................................................................................. 20 22.2 Spelling-changes before –ly ............................................................................................ 20 22.3 Adjectives that have no adverb....................................................................................... 20 22.4 impossibly / not possibly ............................................................................................... 20 22.5 Degrees of comparison of adverbs ................................................................................. 21 Summaries of .. .. Francy Stroop .. 2018642 .. . an English Grammar for students in higher education 16 The noun 16.1 Classes of nouns A. B. C. D. proper nouns count nouns non-count nouns both count- and non-count nouns a. to refer to different kinds b. to intensify the meaning 16.2 How to make the plural regularly adding –s end in hissing sound adding –es end in hissing sound + -e adding –s 16.3 Plural of nouns ending in –y end in consonant + -y ‘-y’ changes into ‘ie’ + adding –s end in vowel + -y adding –s 16.4 Plural of nouns ending in –o end in consonant + -o adding –es (regularly) end in vowel + -o adding –s (regularly) Some nouns ending in consonant + -o adding –s pianos, kilos, discos, photos, memos, dynamos, hippos and Eskimos Some nouns may add –s or –es when plural banjos/banjoes cargos/cargoes volcanos/volcanoes mosquitos / mosquitoes buffalos/buffaloes, flamingos/flamingos 16.5 Plural formed by –‘s plural of letters adding -‘s plural of abbreviations adding –‘s (but more common: adding –s) plural of numerals adding –‘s (but more common: adding –s) tornados/tornadoes torpedos/torpedoes ghettos/ghettoes Summaries of .. .. Francy Stroop .. 2018642 .. . an English Grammar for students in higher education 16.6 The plural of nouns ending in –f or –fe A. Plural in –ves calves halves sheaves knives elves lives B. Plural is –fs or –ves handkerchiefs/handkerchieves scarfs/scarves selves wives shelves leaves thieves loaves hoofs/hooves wharfs/wharves volves dwarfs / dwarves C. Nouns ending on –f only adding -s 16.7 Irregular Plurals A. vowel change man – men woman – women goose – geese B. plural in –en child – children foot – feet tooth – teeth louse – lice mouse – mice ox – oxen C. “pennies” to denote coins / “pence” to denote price D. Irregular foreign words basis – bases crisis – crises oasis – oases analysis – analyses thesis – theses hypothesis – hypotheses stimulus – stimuli cactus – cacti / cactuses phenomenon – phenomena (less common: phenomenons) terminus – termini / terminuses aquarium – aquariums / aquaria medium – media curriculum – curricula / curriculums stadium – stadiums / stadia criterion – criteria datum – data 16.8 Nouns having one form for singular and plural. A. The names of some animals: deer, sheep, grouse and plaice B. A number of nouns ending in –s: alms, barracks, means, series, works and headquarters Summaries of .. .. Francy Stroop .. 2018642 .. . an English Grammar for students in higher education C. A number of nouns denoting inhabitants of a country or town: Japanese, Swiss, Vietnamese, Viennese and Portuguese D. The word ‘craft’ and its compounds. 16.9 Nouns that are plural in BrE but singular in Dutch. A. Nouns denoting an object consisting of two equal parts. a. When the indefinite article or a numeral precedes, the word ‘pair’ is used. (a pair of jeans) b. In compound nouns, a singular form is used. (a spectacle case) B. Other nouns that are always plural: surroundings premises pains proceeds ashes contents arrears riches savings customs damages stairs thanks wages fireworks holidays spirits billiarts, darts, dominoes and draughts always plural but followed by singular verb. Nouns ending on –ics always singular verb. (sometimes also plural) The United States and the United Nations singular verb 16.10 Nouns that are singular in Dutch but plural in BrE. progress, business, furniture, property, strength and information o business and property can also be countnouns. o furniture and information can be made countable by using a numeral. (a few / bit) 16.11 Collective nouns singular verb + collective noun group is thought of as a unit plural verb + collective noun individual members of a group are thought of Collective nouns that are always followed by a plural verb: people, cattle, police, clergy and vermin o people can be count noun in the meaning of: nation o cattle can be made countable by the word: head 16.12 Plural noun when more than one Plural more than one Singular numeral + hyphen Summaries of .. .. Francy Stroop .. 2018642 .. . an English Grammar for students in higher education 16.13 Masculine / feminine / neuter masculine male persons or animals feminine female persons of animals neuter all other nouns A. Animals are neuter when the sex in unknown B. Geographical units of counties are neuter political-, economical- and cultural- units are feminine C. Ships / cars / planes / motorbike are feminine to express an affectionate attitude. 16.14 Different words for male and female beings man – woman boy – girl nephew – niece fiancé – fiancée actor – actress heir – heiress host – hostess waiter – waitress duke – duchess widower – widow hero – heroine policeman – policewoman chairman – chairwoman cock – hen bull – cow stallion – mare emperor – empress spokesman – spokeswoman ! Words ending in –person can be used in situations where it is felt to be desirable not to refer to the sex of the person. 16.15 One noun for man and woman A) The question whether a man or woman is meant can be expressed by putting a feminine or masculine noun before the noun. B) The question whether a man or woman is meant can be expressed by putting a male or female noun before the noun. Summaries of .. .. Francy Stroop .. 2018642 .. . an English Grammar for students in higher education 17 The genitive 17.1 The form of the genitive A. ‘s B. ‘ (genitive of propernouns ending in –s, -‘s or –‘ ) 17.2 The use of the genitive Refers to: possession, relation, part of or time 17.3 Propernouns Propernouns of persons Genitive Propernouns of towns or countries both genitive and of phrase 17.4 Nouns denoting persons or animals Nouns denoting a person both genitive and of phrase Nouns denoting an animal both genitive and of phrase 17.5 Nouns denoting things Nouns denoting lifeless things of phrase Nouns denoting places both genitive and of phrase Collective nouns both genitive and of phrase Nouns denoting means of transport both genitive and of phrase 17.6 Nouns denoting time Nouns denoting time genitive 17.7 The genitive in a number of fixed expressions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Keep a person at arm’s length. For goodness’ sake. Enjoy oneself to one’s heart content. to be at one’s wits’ (or: wit’s) end. At a stone’s throw. Summaries of .. .. Francy Stroop .. 2018642 .. . an English Grammar for students in higher education 17.8 The classifying genitive The classifying genitive denotes: ‘a kind of…’ 17.9 The independent genitive The independent genitive is used when a noun is left out because it has been mentioned before (or will be mentioned later) 17.10 The local genitive The local genitive (often in combination with a deletion site) is used to denote a particular building. 17.11 The post-genitive When the head noun is preceded by: A) the indefinite article B) a numeral C) a quantifier D) a demonstrative pronoun E) an interrogative pronoun F) an indefinite pronoun + when the head noun is plural and not qualified by a plural word. Summaries of .. .. Francy Stroop .. 2018642 .. . an English Grammar for students in higher education 18 The definite article 18.1 The use of the definite article before nouns used in a general sense. English does NOT use the definite article when the following noun is: (1) a plural (2) a non-count noun (3) used in a general sense (If ‘seasons’ are used in a general sense; the definite article may be used.) 18.2 Use of the definite article before school, etc. The special cases are: school, university, church, hospital, prison, college and town. o No definite article when the use is referred to. o Definite article when the building or town as such is referred to. 18.3 The definite article before names of regular meals In general not used Reference to quality or special occasion used 18.4 The definite article before names of means of transport When the use is referred to no definite article 18.5 The definite article before geographical names Ben Nevis Vesuvius Mount Everest Mont Blanc Lake Erie Lake Genevia Westminster Abbey Buckingham Palace St. Paul’s cathedral the river Thames ! Antarctica the Antarctic West-Indië the West Indies Nederland the Netherlands 18.6 Definite article before names of language Definite article before names of language none the river Rhine the Matterhorn the Jungfrau Summaries of .. .. Francy Stroop .. 2018642 .. . an English Grammar for students in higher education 18.7 Definite Article before most and half most = the greater part of no definite article most = more than anyone else definite article Definite article is NEVER used before half. 18.8 Definite article before last or next last = immediately before the present one no definite article last = not (immediately before the present one) definite article next = refers to time from now no definite article next = refers to order definite article Last or next preceded by the followed by few: 1. The last few days, weeks, months, years, etc. 2. The next few days, weeks, months, years, etc. 18.9 Definite article before a superlative No definite article if the superlative is a Subject attribute or an adverbial. 18.10 No definite article in a number of expressions to lose patience to weigh / drop anchor to lose sight of to catch sight of to declare war on at daybreak at dawn to shake hands with a person to be dressed in black to be at work 18.11 Definite article in English but not in Dutch A) before names of musical instruments definite article B) before a noun + of definite article C) in some expressions: to raise the alarm to be / become the fashion to put to the vote to join the army to be in practice to learn by heart to be at stake Summaries of .. .. Francy Stroop .. 2018642 .. . an English Grammar for students in higher education 19 The indefinite article 19.1 A/an a is used before consonants an is used before vowels ! a honour, honest, hour, heir (h is not pronounced) a(n) hotel, historian (h is pronounced weakly in unstressed syllable) 19.2 Indefinite article before a number of nouns The indefinite article is used before nouns denoting a profession, a religion, an occupation, a nationality or another state in life. Occupation, etc. can only be held by one person at the time no indefinite article Two qualities of the same person are contrasted no indefinite article After the post of, the office of and the rank of no indefinite article 19.3 Indefinite article after as Normally after as indefinite article is used. But: Occupation, etc. can only be held by one person at the time no indefinite article 19.4 The indefinite article after with and without The indefinite article is used after with and without, unless it’s followed by more than one noun that belong together. 19.5 The indefinite article before hundred and thousand. The indefinite article is used before hundred and thousand. 19.6 The indefinite article for Dutch ‘een zekere’ Before Mr, Mrs, Ms and miss indefinite article No title precedes the indefinite article may not be used on its own 19.7 The indefinite article in a number of expressions Summaries of .. .. Francy Stroop .. 2018642 .. . an English Grammar for students in higher education to have a fever to have a headache what a pity! to have a cold two at a time to have a talent for to keep something a secret to have an appetite on a large scale a short time after that for weeks at a stretch to come to a standstill to go on a journey to take an interest in there’s a chance that in a loud voice to give an answer to to a great extent to a certain extent to sell at a loss with a view to a merger to express a wish to as a rule have a tendency to for a change earn a living What do you do for a living? 19.8 Indefinte article before part of Before part of no indefinite article After what before non-count- and plural nouns no indefinite article to sell at a profit to have a right to 55p a kilo £2 a piece / each on a average on the average on average twice a week Summaries of .. .. Francy Stroop .. 2018642 .. . an English Grammar for students in higher education 20 The numeral 20.1 Categories of numerals Cardinals and Ordinals 20.2 Cardinals A) B) C) D) E) F) G) H) hundred, thousand, billion, million, etc. are preceded by a or one the combination of a numeral with hundred, thousand, etc. is written as two separate words. after hundred, thousand, billion, million, etc. the word and is used to separate of the tens and units. from 2,000 onwards first thousands, then hundreds between 1,100 – 1,900 only hundreds the comma is used to separate of the thousands the full stop is used before decibels the full stop is also used to separate of units of money or time pronunciation of 0 telephone numbers and years oh temperatures and in science zero results in most games nil results in tennis love the plural tens in only used in tens of thousands Dutch tientallen is translated with dozens 20.3 Ordinals A) formed by adding –th to the cardinal (exceptions: first, second, third) special cases: fifth, eighth, ninth, twelfth, twentieth B) Spelling of figures: last two letters of the word written in letters are added to the cardinal in numbers C) In fractions, an ordinal preceded by a cardinal higher than one, is put in the plural. 1) The noun preceded by the fraction indicates whether a verb is singular or plural. 2) With collective nouns, both plural and singular verbs are allowed. 20.4 Dates 23 January / January 23 / 23rd January / January 23rd DON’T USE of AND the IN WRITING!!! Summaries of .. .. Francy Stroop .. 2018642 .. . an English Grammar for students in higher education 21 The adjective An adjective says something about: (1) a noun (2) a personal pronoun (3) a demonstrative pronoun 21.1 Adjectives without a following noun A. B. C. D. well and unwell (= in good / bad health) ill content (contented can always be used) afraid, alive, alone, asleep, awake and aware. 21.2 Degrees of comparison A. Comparing two persons or things formal: comparative informal: superlative but: the greater part of / the latter half of B. a superlative without the means very 21.3 -er/est or more/most? -er/est either –er/est or more/most more/most 1 syllable in pronunciation 2 sylables and ending in le-er-ow-y-some 3 syllables or more 2 syllables and stress on second syllable two syllables and stress on first syllable 6 adjectives: civil, stupid, common, cruel quiet and pleasant. 21.4 Spelling changes before –er/est A. When y is preceded by a consonant, it becomes i. Exceptions: shy-shyer-shyest (also: shier, shiest) and sly-slyer-slyest B. Final consonant is doubled when it is preceded by one stressed vowel letter. C. When an adjective ends in –e, only –r and –st are added. Summaries of .. .. Francy Stroop .. 2018642 .. . an English Grammar for students in higher education 21.5 Irregular degrees of comparison A. good/well good – better – best well – better – best (=not ill) well-known – better-known – best-known B. bad – worse – worst C. ill – worse – worst D. little – less – the least few used before plural nouns less no less than and less and less E. much – more – most used with non-count nouns many – more – most used with count nouns F. reference to distance farther – farthest / further – futhest meaning is additional further – furthest G. old – older – oldest / old – elder – eldest elder is used before: (1) son (2) doughter (3) brother (4) sister (5) child H. later refers to time latter refers to the second of people or things just mentioned last means final latest means most recent 21.6 Adjectives used as nouns Adjectives used as nouns to denote the whole class of people having the same quality Adjectives followed by a noun such as man, woman, people, person, ect. to denote individuals But: unemployed can be used without a following noun if preceded by a numeral. Adjectives followed by the noun thing to refer to things Exceptions: the worst is over if the worst comes to the worst the worst of it is that he told her Summaries of .. .. Francy Stroop .. 2018642 .. . an English Grammar for students in higher education 21.7 Adjectives denoting nationalities A. To denote the whole nation British, Flemish, Welsh, Irish, French, Dutch and Spanish can be used. (Also to denote a special group of people representing the country) To denote individuals add man/woman To denote an individual inhabitant of Britan Briton B. Swiss and adjectives in –ese to denote the whole nation or individuals C. Other nations the plural of the noun denoting an inhabitant is used to denote the whole country: Country Adjective Inhabitant the whole nation Austria Belgium Denmark Europe Finland Germany Greece Italy Morocco Norway Poland Austrian Belgian Danish European Finnish German Greek Italian Moroccan Norwegian Polish an Austrian a Belgian a Dane an European a Finn a German a Greek an Italian a Moroccan a Norwegian a Pole Scotland Russia Spain Scottish Scots Russian Spanish a Scot a Scotsman a Russian a Spaniard Sweden Swedish a Swede Turkey Turkish a Turk the Austrians the Belgians the Danes the Europeans the Finns the Germans the Greeks the Italians the Moroccans the Norwegians the Poles the Polish the Scots the Scottish the Russians the Spaniards the Spanish the Swedes the Swedish the Turks 21.8 one/ones after adjectives No word after the adjective in Dutch one added after the adjective in English. But: one/ones can be left out after a comparative or superlative or after own. Summaries of .. .. Francy Stroop .. 2018642 .. . an English Grammar for students in higher education 21.9 Nouns used as adjectives A. Nouns denoting materials may be used as an adjective. golden = used in a figurative sense gold = used in a literal sense leaden = used in both figurative and literal sense lead = equally correct in literal sense silken = used in figurative sense silk = used in a literal sense B. Placenames can be used as adjectives. Note: Paris has the adjective: Parisian. 21.10 hoe langer hoe… / hoe… hoe… / des te … hoe langer hoe… 2 comparative forms linked by means of and hoe… hoe… two comparative forms preceded by the des te beter so much the better / all the better des te erger (all) the more serious Summaries of .. .. Francy Stroop .. 2018642 .. . an English Grammar for students in higher education 22 The adverb The adverb refers to: (1) a verb (2) an adjective (3) another adverb (4) the whole sentence 22.1 The form of the adverb Adverbs are derived from adjectives by means of the suffix –ly. Adjectives in –ic add –ally, but: publicly. Adjectives and adverbs that have the same form: hard late free fast direct straight early fair daily weekly monthly quarterly Adverbs that are not derived from any word: always, never, perhaps, only, here, etc. 22.2 Spelling-changes before –ly A. final –y changes into i but: shy – shyly B. -ble becomes –bly C. true becomes truly D. whole becomes wholly 22.3 Adjectives that have no adverb From the adjectives difficult and a numer of adjectives ending in –ly, no adverbs can be derived by means of the suffix –ly. In this case, in a … way may be used as adverb. Let op! not likely has the adverb probably not. 22.4 impossibly / not possibly not possibly adverb refers to an adjective or adverb impossibly adverb refers to a verb Summaries of .. .. Francy Stroop .. 2018642 .. . an English Grammar for students in higher education 22.5 Degrees of comparison of adverbs Degrees of comparison of adverbs are mostly formed by more/most. Adverbs of one syllable and early take –er/est. often has two forms: often – more often – most often / often – oftener – oftenest There are also irregular forms: badly – worse – worst well – better – best late – later – last little – less – least much – more – most