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Writing Handbook for
Fundamentals of College Writing
Updated: Fall 2011
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Table of Contents
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Formatting Guidelines
Parts of Speech
Capitalization
Prepositional Phrases
Sentences
Run-Ons
Fragments
Apostrophes
Dialogue
Homophones and FMWs
Academic Style
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General Formatting Guidelines:
There are two major rule books for academic writing: the Modern
Language Association’s (MLA) and the American Psychological
Association’s (APA).
MLA is typically used by Humanities Courses: English, information
technology class, human relations/resources classes, and some history
classes. APA is used by the social sciences: psychology, sociology,
anthropology, education, and communication.
To be sure you are using the right style, ASK YOUR TEACHER.
Both styles have a few guidelines in common, so always format your
document by using the following steps:
 Press ‘Ctrl + A” to select all
In the HOME tab:
 In the ‘Home’ tab, select Times New Roman font size 12
 In the ‘Home’ tab under paragraph click on the spacing icon
 Click “2.0”
 Click “Remove Space After Paragraph”
In the PAGE LAYOUT tab:
 click ‘margins’
 click ‘normal’ to choose 1” margins on all sides
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Parts of Speech:
Before you can understand how a sentence works, you must
understand what the words in the sentence are and how they function.
The function of any given word in a sentence is determined by its part
of speech. There are eight:
Noun: Person, Place, Thing, or Idea
Common Nouns: Can be used to name any old object
Examples: sister, school, restaurant
Proper Nouns: Used to name particular objects; The
official name of a thing, proper nouns are capitalized.
Examples: Susie, Metropolitan Community College,
Taco Bell
Verb: Action or State of Being
Examples of Action Verbs: jump, run, believe, argue
State of Being Verbs: am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been.
Adjective: Describes a noun or pronoun
Adverb: Describes a verb, adverb, or adjective; usually ends in –ly
Pronoun: Takes the place of a noun
Singular
Plural
1st Person
I, me, my, mine
we, us, our, ours
2nd Person
you, your
yous, y’all
3rd Person
he, she, it, him, her,
his, hers, its
they, their, theirs
Preposition: Describes the relationship between two nouns, anything
that describes the relationship between a butterfly and a tree.
Examples: in, on, above, beyond, over, of, from, to
Interjection: Expresses excitement or emotion
Examples: Wow! Gee Whiz! Golly Wallits!
Conjunction: Combines words phrases and clauses
Coordinating: FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Subordinating: because, that, as, where, which, when, etc…
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Capitalization:
Rules from the OWL-The Online Writing Lab at Purdue
Use capital letters in the following ways:
1. The first words of a sentence
When he tells a joke, he sometimes forgets the punch line.
2. The pronoun "I"
The last time I visited Atlanta was several years ago.
3. Official Names of things: Proper Nouns
 Titles preceding names, but not titles that follow names
She worked as the assistant to Mayor Hanolovi.
I was able to interview Miriam Moss, mayor of Littonville.
 Names of Specific Places:
Taco Johns
Taj Mahal
Omaha, Nebraska
Elmwood Park
 Organizations and their members: Members of national,
political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groups
Green Bay Packers
Democrats
African-Americans
Friends of the Wilderness
 Companies and their Trademarks
Pepsi
IBM
Honda
Microsoft Word
 The names of gods, religious figures, and religions
Exception: Do not capitalize the nonspecific use of the
word "god."
God the Father
the Virgin Mary
Shiva
Zeus
“Polytheistic" means the worship of more than one god.
 The names of countries, nationalities, and specific
languages
Costa Rica
French
Brazilian
English
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


The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays
(but not the seasons used generally)
Exception: Seasons are capitalized when used in a title.
Halloween
winter
October
spring
Friday
The Fall 1999 semester
Periods, historical eras and events (but not century
numbers)
Victorian Era
sixteenth century
Great Depression
Specific course names and names of courses that are also
languages, but not general course names.
Introduction to Psychology
psychology
Contemporary Literature
literature
English
4. Directions that are names (North, South, East, and West when
used as sections of the country, but not as compass directions)
The Patels have moved to the Southwest.
Jim's house is two miles north of Otterbein.
5. Title Case: The major words in the titles of books, articles, and
songs (but not short prepositions or the articles "the," "a," or
"an," if they are not the first word of the title)
One of Jerry's favorite books is The Catcher in the Rye.
6. Family relationships (when used as proper names)
I sent a gift to Aunt Abigail, but not to my other aunts.
Here is a present I bought for Mother.
Did you buy a present for your mother?
7. The first word in a sentence that is a direct quote
Amy said, “We’re almost home, I promise.”
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Prepositional Phrases:
A PHRASE is a group of words, which contains neither a
subject nor a verb. (It may, however, contain a verbal form
such as an infinitive, a participle, or a gerund.)
Prepositional phrases (the most common phrases) can be used as
adverbs or adjectives. They begin with a preposition and carry
through the object. (remember, a preposition relates two subjects. One
comes before the phrase and one is contained within the phrase.):
In a flash, she realized that the tofu had been underneath her
chair all along.
After midnight, Egbert's mother was on the roof dancing
with a Ukranian bullfighter.
Phrases, particularly prepositional phrases, are non-essential to the
meaning of the sentence. You could remove them and the sentence as
a whole would still make sense. It would be a little less specific. but
the sentence still works.
After midnight, Egbert's mother was on the roof dancing
with a Ukranian bullfighter.
Note: The remaining idea: “Egbert’s mother was on the roof dancing”
is a complete idea.
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Common Prepositions
There are a little over 100 prepositions in the English
language. For a more complete list, do a Google search or check the
Wikipedia entry.
about
behind
except
outside
above
below
for
over
across
beneath
from
past
after
beside
in
through
against
between
inside
to
along
beyond
into
under
among
by
near
until
around
despite
of
up
at
down
off
with
before
during
on
without
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What is a Sentence?
A sentence is a group of words that tells a complete thought. A
sentence contains a subject (someone or something, a noun) and a
predicate (what they did or their state of being, a verb).
Example: This afternoon, Amber will attend her first English class.
Subject: Tells who or what the sentence is about, there are two ways
to talk about the subject:
Simple Subject: This includes just the word/s that tell who or
what the sentence is about.
Example: This afternoon, Amber will attend her first English class.
Complete Subject: This includes the simple subject and all of
the other descriptive words in the first half of the sentence
Example: This afternoon, Amber will attend her first English class.
Predicate: Begins with the verb and explains what the subject is
doing or tells the subjects state of being. There are two ways to talk
about the predicate:
Simple Predicate: This includes ONLY the verb/s that
describe what the subject is doing or being.
Example: This afternoon, Amber will attend her first English class.
Complete Predicate: This begins with the verb/s and
continues until the end of the thought (to the period or
conjunction.)
Example: This afternoon, Amber will attend her first English class.
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Four Types of Sentences:
The Basics:
Simple Sentence: A simple sentence has one subject and one
predicate. The subject is the first part of the sentence and contains the
who or what that the sentence is about, and the predicate is the second
half of the sentence and tells what the thing or person did. You can
draw a line between the subject and the predicate.
Examples:
subject
predicate
Laughing, Mary skipped enthusiastically down the hallway.
subject
predicate
Mary and Ellen ran and laughed as they escaped their brother.
The second sentence contains a compound subject, a subject with
more than one person/thing, and a compound predicate, two
separate things the subject did (two separate verbs).
However, this is still a simple sentence because we can split the
sentence easily in half, with both women being part of a single group
that acts together. What’s more, the verbs are both separated into the
predicate and make a list of what the women did.
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Vocabulary for the other three types of
sentences:
To make the other types of sentences, we will use
CONJUNCTIONS to combine simple sentences into more intricate
pieces of writing. To avoid confusing what type of sentences we are
making, we will call these simple sentences CLAUSES.
A conjunction: is the part of speech that is used to combine words
phrases and clauses. The conjunction will ALWAYS come at the
beginning of the clause. It is a sign that you should be looking for a
new set of subject and predicate. There are two types of conjunctions:
Coordinating: FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
There are only seven coordinating conjunctions, ever.
Subordinating: There are quite a few subordinating conjunctions
and this is certainly not a complete list. However, the most
common of these conjunctions are listed here, and the top six are
in bold.
after
how
till ( or 'til)
although
if
unless
as
inasmuch
until
as if
in order that
when
as long as
lest
whenever
as much as
now that
where
as soon as
provided (that)
wherever
as though
since
while
because
so that
which
before
than
even if
that
even though
though
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Conjunctive Adverbs: These words look and feel like conjunctions,
but they cannot combine clauses. Rather, these words are simply
transitional, and will need to start a new sentence.
accordingly
however
therefore
indeed
furthermore
nevertheless
thus
now
moreover
then
likewise
still
A clause is a group of words containing a subject, a predicate, and an
idea. There are two types of clauses:
Independent: An independent clause can stand alone. It contains a
subject, a predicate, and a complete idea.
 A simple sentence is a single independent clause which
contains no conjunctions.
Examples: Sheila studied hard to become a nurse.

An independent clause may also be a simple sentence that has
a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) attached to it.
Remember, independent people have fanboys!
Example: …, and Sheila studied hard to become a nurse.
Because ‘and’ is a conjunction, it cannot start a sentence, despite
what the newspaper seems to think. However this independent clause
is relatively autonomous, and makes sense all on its own.
Dependent: A dependent clause cannot stand alone. It contains a
subject and a predicate but is an incomplete idea. The dependent
clause contains a subordinating conjunction, which makes it meaning
incomplete.
Example: When Shelia studied hard to become a nurse…
Because ‘when’ is a subordinating conjunction, it leaves us hanging.
The thought is not completed.
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The type of clause, type of conjunction, and type of sentence are all
related. Once you find all of the conjunctions, you will know how
many clauses you have, what kind you have, and what type of
sentence.
1. Simple Sentence: 1 independent clause with no conjunctions
Rachel ran to class.
2. Compound Sentence: 2 or more independent clauses combined
with coordinating conjunctions
Rachel ran to class, and Megan saved her a seat.
3. Complex Sentence: 1 independent clause + 1 or more dependent
clauses combined with subordinating conjunctions
Rachel ran to class, while Megan saved her a seat.
4. Compound/Complex Sentence: 2 or more independent clauses +
1 or more dependent clauses combined using both types of
conjunctions.
Rachel ran to class, and Megan saved her a seat while the
instructor took roll.
Conjunctions
Clauses
Simple
0
1 Independent
Compound
1+ Fanboys
2+ Independent
Complex
1+ Subordinating
Compound/
Complex
Both
1 Independent
1+ Dependent
2+ Independent
1+ Dependent
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Understanding and Fixing Run-ons
Adapted From: The Online Writing Lab at Purdue
There are two kinds of Run-ons Sentences:
Fused Sentence: two independent clauses combined with no
punctuation and no conjunctions.
Comma Splice: two independent clauses combined with a
comma but no clauses.
The first two fixes use the two different conjunctions to
COMBINE the sentences.
1. Join the two independent clauses with a comma and one of the
FANBOYS.
___________________, so ___________________.
There was a big sale at Macy’s, so she wanted to go to the mall.
2. You can combine the clauses appropriately by using a
subordinating conjunction.
_____________________when______________________.
She wanted to go to the mall when there was a big sale at Macy’s
The second two fixes use two kinds of punctuations to
SEPARATE the sentences:
3. Semicolons say these two sentences are so closely related they
are like cousins who share bunk beds.
____________________;________________________.
She wanted to go to the mall; there was a big sale at Macy’s.
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4. You can simply separate the two sentences using a period.
______________________. _________________________.
She wanted to go to the mall. There was a big sale at Macy’s
To figure out if a sentence is a run-on, look for simple subjects
and simple predicates. Then look for conjunctions. You should
always have one more clause than the number of conjunction.
Incorrect:
They weren't dangerous criminals they were detectives in disguise.
Here, the two sets of subject/predicate mean there are two clauses, but there are
ZERO conjunctions, so this is a fused sentence.
Correct:
They weren't dangerous criminals; they were detectives in disguise.
The corrected sentence has two sets of subject/predicate but has separated them
with a semi-colon to make a correct compound sentence.
Incorrect:
I didn't know which job I wanted, I was too confused to decide.
Here, there are three sets of subject/predicate, one conjunction. and a comma, but a
comma cannot combine or separated sentences, so this is a comma splice.
Correct:
I didn't know which job I wanted, and I was too confused to decide.
Here, there are three sets of subject/predicate and TWO conjunctions .
three clauses have been combined correctly to make a
compound/complex sentence.
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These
Understanding and Fixing Fragments
Adapted From: The Online Writing Lab at Purdue
Fragments are incomplete sentences.
Usually, fragments are a matter of punctuation. We don’t speak
in fragments, so it’s really a matter of reconnecting things by
fixing the punctuation.
There are several common types of fragments:
1. A sentence has too many conjunctions: Check for
subject/predicate sets and then count the conjunctions. You should
always have one more clause than conjunctions. If there’s an extra
conjunction, use it to connect the fragment to something else.

Fragment: I need to find a new roommate. Because my
current roomate isn't working out too well.

Possible Revision: I need to find a new roommate because my
current roomate isn't working out too well.
2. Sentences that begin with –ing verbs: The real issue here is that
the sentence is actually just a phrase. It does not contain a subject,
and the –ing word that looks like a verb, can’t be the verb of your
sentence because it isn’t conjugated into past, present, or future tense.

Fragment: Coach Dietz exemplified this behavior by walking
off the field in the middle of a game. Leaving her team at a
time when we needed her.
Notice that the second half begins with an –ing verb, and it’s connected to
something else, but there’s still one conjunction and only one clause.
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
Possible Revision: Coach Dietz exemplified this behavior by
walking off the field in the middle of a game, leaving her team
at a time when we needed her.
You may have noticed that newspaper and magazine journalists often
use a dependent clause as a separate sentence when it follows clearly
from the preceding main clause, as in the last example above.
Sometimes they will also start sentences with FANBOYS. These are
conventional journalistic practices, often used for emphasis. For
academic writing and other more formal writing situations, however,
you should avoid such journalistic fragment sentences.
Some fragments are not clearly pieces of sentences that have been
left unattached to the main clause; they are written as main
clauses but lack a subject or main verb.
No main verb

Fragment: A story with deep thoughts and emotions.
Possible Revisions:
o Add a Subject and Verb: She told a story with deep
thoughts and emotions.

Fragment: A record of accomplishment beginning when
you were first hired.
Two Possible Revisions:
o
Add a subject and new verb: I've noticed a record of
accomplishment beginning when you were first hired
o
Add a Main verb: A record of accomplishment began
when you were first hired.
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No Subject
 Fragment:
With the ultimate effect of all advertising is to sell
the product.
Possible Revisions:
o Remove preposition: With The ultimate effect of all
advertising is to sell the product.
 Fragment:
By paying too much attention to polls can make a
political leader unwilling to propose innovative policies.
Possible Revisions:
o Remove preposition: By Paying too much attention to polls
can make a political leader unwilling to propose
innovative policies.
 Fragment:
For doing freelance work for a competitor got Phil
fired.
Possible Revisions:
o Remove preposition: For Doing freelance work for a
competitor got Phil fired.
o Rearrange: Phil got fired for doing freelance work for a
competitor.
These last three examples of fragments with no subjects are also
known as mixed constructions, that is, sentences constructed out of
mixed parts. They start one way (often with a long prepositional
phrase) but end with a regular predicate. Usually the object of the
preposition (often a gerund, as in the last two examples) is intended
as the subject of the sentence, so removing the preposition at the
beginning is usually the easiest way to edit such errors.
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How to Use an Apostrophe from The
Oatmeal:
1
2
3
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4
5
6
22
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Challenge: Find any fragments or run-ons in the Oatmeal’s
explanation of apostrophes. Use the sentence revision guidelines to
identify, fix, and explain the errors.
Possessive Pronouns:
Keep in mind that possessive pronouns will NEVER contain an
apostrophe:
The ball is hers.
The parking ticket was his fault
The once treasured jewelry box sat atop the pile of Goodwill
donations, its lid scratched and its drawer missing a handle.
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Dialogue
We have five basic rules for dialogue:
1. Every time someone different speaks, start a new paragraph.
Bad example:
"Jim, are you sure?" Blair
asked. "Yeah, I'm sure."
"Really?" "Yes, Sandburg,
really."
Good example:
"Jim, are you sure?" Blair
asked.
"Yeah, I'm sure."
"Really?"
"Yes, Sandburg, really."
2. Make sure the readers know who is talking.
But don't overdo it. If only two people are talking, you need
only identify them occasionally, so the readers can keep them
straight. If more than two people are talking, you need to tell
the readers who is saying what when. Examples:
Two people:
"Jim, I don't get it," Blair said.
Jim raised an eyebrow. "Don't get what, Chief?"
"This case, man. It doesn't make any sense."
"Here it comes. Sandburg, what part of 'case closed' don't you
understand?"
Three people:
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"I don't get it," Blair said.
Jim raised an eyebrow. "Don't get what, Chief?"
"This case, man. It doesn't make any sense."
"Here it comes," Simon groaned. "Sandburg, what part of
'case closed' don't you understand?"
3."Said" is a perfectly good word.
It tells the readers what they need to know. It is not necessary
to rack your brain trying to find a substitute for "said," or for
"asked." It is not even necessary to use "said," except to tell
the readers who is speaking (see 3), or to provide a pause
between dialogue. Use words other than "said" only when you
find it necessary to describe to the readers how the words are
being spoken because the dialogue itself does not make that
clear. And please remember, if you must use "replied," that
your character can only reply if he is answering a question.
Examples:
"Don't do that," Blair said.
"Don't do that," Blair pleaded.
"Don't do that," Blair ordered.
"Don't do that!" Blair screamed.
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4. Punctuate, punctuate, punctuate.

When you describe how the dialogue is spoken, that description
is part of the same sentence as the dialogue. When the
description comes after the dialogue, end the dialogue with a
comma, and put a period after the description. When the
description comes before, put a comma after the description.
Bad example:
"I don't want to." Blair said.
And
Blair said. "I don't want to."
Good example:
"I don't want to," Blair said.
Or
Blair said, "I don't want to."
Second Good Example:
"Blair, you are the most
beautiful man I have ever
seen," she said. *
5. Internal Dialogue
This is what you have when your character talks to himself in
his head. There are various acceptable ways to indicate
internal dialogue. The most common is italics.
Example:
Second Example:
Why am I so stupid? Blair
thought. How could I have
told Ellison he was a
throwback to pre-civilized
man?
Why am I so stupid? Blair
shoved his hair back. How
could I have told Ellison he
was a throwback to precivilized man?
from: http://silvablu.skeeter63.org/HMG/07-dialog.htm#Paragraph
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Homonyms and Frequently Misused Words
allowed permitted
aloud spoken
affect verb—to create change/reaction
effect noun—like special effects
allot verb—to set aside, to reserve for
a lot adjective—a bunch/many
alot this is not an actual word
are present plural for of ‘to be’
our possessive pronoun: it belongs to us
board a plank
bored not interested brake/break
capital most important
capitol center of government
dear beloved
deer Bambi
die to become dead
dye coloring agent
fair even-handed
fare payment
feat an accomplishment
feet look down
fewer refers to things that can be counted easily
less refers to thing that must be measured to be counted
flour powdered grain
flower a bloom
forth a direction
fourth following the third
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knew past tense of know
new not old
heal to cure of disease
heel hind part of foot
he’ll he will
hi a greeting
high way up
hole round opening
whole entirety
it's contraction of "it is"
its possessive pronoun
lie to tell an untruth or to set down followed by a prepositional phrase
lay to set down followed by the item that was set down
meat animal flesh
meet to connect
passed approved; moved on
past before now
peace what hippies want
piece a part
plain not fancy
plane a surface or flying machine
principal head of school
principle accepted rule of conduct
read to get the meaning by looking
reed tall, thin water plant
sea ocean
see to look
stair a step
stare look intently
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stationary not moving
stationery writing paper
steal take unlawfully
steel iron alloy
their belonging to them
there a place
they're contraction of "they are"
threw to propel by hand
through from end to end
thorough painstakingly accurate
till not a real word
until up to the point
to toward
too also
two a couple
waist between ribs and hips
waste make ill use of
wait remain in readiness
weight an amount of heaviness
ware merchandise
wear attire
where a place
were past tense of are
weather meteorological conditions
whether if it be the case
who's contraction of "who is"
whose belonging to whom
you're contraction of "you are"
your belonging to you
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Writing in “Academic Style”
Anytime you are asked to write an essay for class, you must evaluate
if it is an informal essay, or if it is a formal essay that should be
written in academic style. For most papers in classes like
psychology, sociology, history, geography, upper-level English, or
science, you are probably writing a formal essay. Your teacher is
looking for a number of specific things in terms of structure and style.
We call this list of rules, “Academic Style.”
What to do:
 Use Times New Roman, 12 Point Font
 Include a thesis statement as the last sentence of the first
paragraph
 Write in 5-10 sentences paragraphs that are organized around
a single main idea
 When using quotations, lead into them before you state the
quote and explain the relevance after the quote
 Review your thesis in the conclusion and summarize the
important points. Do not include any new information in the
conclusion. Make sure it is fully developed in 5-10 sentences.
 Use a tone that is objective and confident
 Proofread carefully for grammar and clarity
What not to do:
 Do not use “I”
 Do not use “you”
 Do not ask questions; rephrase possible questions as strong,
bold statements.
 Do not put quotations in the first or last paragraphs
 Do not put quotations in the first or last sentence of any
paragraph
 Avoid Slang and other informal language
 Avoid words from “The Cut List”
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Quick Reference: Words to Avoid
There are certain words that lead to weak and uninteresting writing
almost every time. Avoid the words on this list and you’ll be taking a
big step in the right direction:
how
about
always
used to
usually
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