Download HAP Final Exam Study Guide

HAP 2011-2012
Final Exam Study Guide
Anatomy Basics
 The chemical behavior of an atom is determined by: the number and arrangement of
electrons in the valence (outer) shell.

Structure of an atom? Protons and neutrons in the nucleus; electrons orbiting the
nucleus in electron shells.

Chemical bonding: ionic, covalent, hydrogen bonds
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Ionic bonds transfer electrons from one ion to another and are attracted by
opposing charges.
Covalent bonds are the sharing of electrons between atoms to complete their
outer shells.
Hydrogen bonds are weak intramolecular bonds that hold molecules together.
Important in maintaining structure of an atom.

Statement: Enzymes speed up chemical reactions without being consumed during the
reaction. All enzymes are proteins and act as catalysts.

Provide examples of inorganic/organic compounds.
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Inorganic compounds do not contain carbon as a central atom. They are small
and include carbon dioxide, water, electrolytes, acids, and bases.
Organic compounds are large and contain carbon as a central atom. They include
carb’s, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

What are the biological functions of proteins? Act as enzymes, structure, protection,
immune function, maintain blood concentration.

What are the 4 main categories of tissues?
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Epithelial: line internal and external body cavities; offer protection.
Connective: several locations; include blood, bone, cartilage; connect body
systems together.
Muscular: cardiac (heart), smooth (organs), skeletal muscle; designed for
contraction. Specialized contraction of smooth muscle = peristalsis.
Nervous: located in brain, spinal cord, and nerves; conduct an electrical current.

Important biological characteristics of water?
o Universal solvent
o Lubrication
o Participates in chemical reactions
o Protection/insulation
o High heat capacity to keep temperature relatively constant.

Further review of Chapter 1-3 quizzes/tests!
Skeletal System Review
 Know the categories of bones and examples of each.
o Long: bone is longer than it is wide; femur, phalanges, radius
o Short: bone is as long as it is wide; carpals and tarsals
o Flat: bone is flat and slightly curved; offers protection; skull, pelvis, sternum
o Irregular: bone does not fit in any of above categories; vertebrae, facial bones
o Sutural: bones found to fill in gaps between suture lines in skull, face.
o Sesamoid: bone buried within a tendon; patella (kneecap)

Know the 4 varieties of bone cells and their functions.
o Osteoprogenitor cells: bone stem cells; will form osteoblasts and osteocytes
o Osteoblasts: bone builders; will produce structures in the bony matrix for growth,
repair, and activity changes.
o Osteoclasts: bone consumers; will break down the calcium in the bony matrix due
to low blood calcium levels and repair of broken bone scars.
o Osteocytes: mature bone cells.

What are the functions of the skeletal system? Protection, support (shape), blood cell
formation, levers for muscle attachment/movement; storage of calcium and phosphorus

The foramen magnum is a bone marking found in what bone? occipital

The external auditory meatus is a bone marking found in what bone? temporal

Fontanels allow for what to occur to the skull? Collapse of skull during childbirth for fetus
to fit through birth canal; growth of brain in developing infants and children.

Know
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
The bones that form the wrist are properly termed: carpal

The bones that form the palms of the hands are properly termed: metacarpal

What can a study of the human skeleton reveal about a person? Gender, age,
height/size, disease state, nutritional status, sometimes cause of death, sometimes
occupation.

Where are the differences between the male and female skeleton are best noted? Pelvis,
skull, face

How many bones form the os coxae/pelvis? 3; ilium, ischium, pubis
the regions of the spinal column and the number of bones in each region.
Cervical: x 7
Thoracic: x 12
Lumbar: x 5
Sacrum: fused structure
Coccyx : fused structure; aka tailbone
Muscle System Review
 Know the connective tissues that are part of muscle organization.
o Endomysium: covers individual muscle cells
o Perimysium: covers bundles of muscle cells called fascicles
o Epimysium: covers bundles of fascicles to form a muscle
o Tendon: bound epimysium that joins a muscle to bone

What makes muscle fibers (cells) different from other somatic cells? They have several
nuclei and mitochondria to meet the energy demands of a muscle.

What ingredients are necessary for normal muscle contraction to occur? Oxygen,
glucose, water, electrolytes and a blood supply to deliver these products.

What
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As muscles use energy reserves and begin to produce lactic acid, the muscle has entered
a state of : fatigue

The nervous system communicates with the muscle fiber at this location: NMJ;
neuromuscular junction

The functional unit of the skeletal muscle is known as the : sarcomere

What
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Names of muscles can indicate several things about the muscle, practice a few examples.
o Location of muscle
o Number of attachments
o Size/shape of muscle
o Direction of muscle fibers
o Origin/insertion
o Action of muscle

Further review of muscle quizzes/tests!
are the 3 main varieties of muscle tissue? designed for contraction.
cardiac (heart)
smooth (organs) Specialized contraction of smooth muscle = peristalsis.
skeletal muscle
are the origin and insertion of each muscle referring to?
Origin is the non-moving anchor of a muscle
Insertion is on the moving bone of a muscle.
The insertion ALWAYS moves toward the origin during contraction
Nervous System Review
 Know the neuroglia/nerve glue that is a component of nervous tissue.
o Astrocytes: most numerous; provides a scaffold-like support for neuron anchoring
o Ependymal cells: lines cavities to produce cerebrospinal fluid
o Oligodendrocytes: insulating cells on the CNS
o Schwann cells: insulting cells of the PNS
o Microglial cells: phagocytes that provide immune protection for the nervous
system

Know the different classification of neurons based on organization.
o Multipolar: most numerous neuron in brain; has several dendrites, a single long
axon, and a centrally located cell body.
o Bipolar: transmits info from special senses of face to brain; has a single dendrite,
a single long axon, and a centrally located cell body.
o Unipolar: transmits info from skin to brain; has single dendrite-axon extension
with cell body pushed off to side.
o Anaxonic: good at forming networks in brain; has centrally located cell body,
several dendrites, and a single axon that you can’t tell which is the axon.

Organization/Function of brain regions:
o Cerebrum: the thinking part of the brain; cognition, speech, memory storage.
o Cerebellum: coordinates muscle movement and activity.
o Thalamus: “traffic cop” of the nervous system; directs info as it enters the brain
to the correct region for processing.
o Medulla: controls autonomic life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, body
temperature, etc.

Know the Eye!

Further review of nervous system and vision quizzes/tests!
Endocrine System Review
 What are the 2 main categories of hormones, based on chemical structure?
o Amine/protein hormones: cannot enter cell membrane or nucleus; must remain
on receptor on cell membrane.
o Steroid/lipid hormone: CAN enter cell membrane and nucleus to direct gene
activation.

Understand the concept of hyper-/hypo- secretion.
o Hyper= too much secretion
o Hypo= too little secretion
 BOTH can lead to disease

What are hormones and what do they do for the body? Chemical messengers that are
released into the blood stream to target cells and tissues allowing them to perform
specific functions.
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What
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Further review of endocrine quizzes and tests!
is the difference between exocrine, endocrine, and paracrine function?
Exocrine: released outside of the body; examples include sweat, semen, oil
Endocrine: released inside the body, usually the blood; example is hormones
Paracrine: released into the extracellular space to allow neighboring cells and
tissues to respond/react.
Reproduction Review
 How many chromosomes are found in somatic cells? Diploid #. For humans + 23
pairs/46 chromosomes. Somatic = BODY. In gamete = sex cells it is a HAPLOID #. For
humans = 23 single chromosomes.

What structure transports the ovum to the uterus? Fallopian tubes

In what order of structures do the sperm travel to exit the male reproductive tract?
Made in testes, released to EPIDIDYMIS to mature, VAS DEFERENS, EJACULATORY DUCT,
URETHRA.

What is/are the functions of the reproductive system? Produce, store, nourish gametes.
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Where should fertilization of an egg normally occur? Fallopian tube

What is an ectopic pregnancy? Implantation of an egg OUTSIDE of the uterus.

Be able to properly label both male and female systems.

Further review of reproductive quizzes and tests!

Know the pathogens and symptoms of STD’s.
Circulatory System review
 Know the composition of whole blood. TUBE OF BLOOD
o Plasma: 55% water and dissolved substances
o Buffy coat: <1% thrombocytes and leukocytes
o Red Cell Mass: 45% packed red cells = hematocrit

Know the functions of each formed element in blood.
o Erythrocytes: Red blood cells; contain hemoglobin to carry/transport oxygen from
lungs to body cells for cellular respiration.
o Thrombocytes: Platelets; form clots when blood vessels are torn to prevent
massive blood loss.
o Leukocytes: White blood cells; provide different immune functions

What products can be found dissolved in plasma? See TUBE OF BLOOD notes

What hormone regulates blood cell production? EPO = erythropoetin