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3. ANGLŲ KALBA
3.1 Verbs
3.2 Verbs +..ing or the Infinitive
3.3 Nouns
3.4 Articles
3.5 Pronouns
3.6 Modifiers
3.7 Prepositions
3.8 Syntax
3.9 Vocabulary
3.10 Check Your Knowledge of English
3.1. VERBS
1. Auxiliary verbs
Do is used to form negative and question forms of the Present Tense and did is used in the Past Simple
Tense:
I don’t like it. Does she go to the University? He didn’t pass the exams. Didn’t we meet
at the airport?
Do is used in the positive to give emphasis to a verb:
She is very busy. She does try hard. I did try to help, but there was no need.
Do is used in tag questions and short answers:
He wrote it, didn’t he? She knows him better, doesn’t she? Who opened the window?
Rose did.
Be + Present Participle (–ing) is used to form continuous tenses:
I am writing a letter now.
Be + Past Participle (–ed etc.) is used to form passive sentences:
The houses are built from bricks. It’ll be finished soon.
Have + Past Participle (–ed etc.) is used to form perfect tenses:
I have never been to London. They have already started it.
2. Modal auxiliary verbs
Unlike do, be, have (which only help to form tenses) modal auxiliaries have their own meanings. They
express:









ability (can) – I can’t explain it.
possibility (can, may) – Can I have my photo taken?
permission (may) – May I use your book?
uncertainty (may) – You may think you’re very old, but you strike me as extremely young.
reproach (might) – You might come in time.
obligation (must, ought to) – Children ought to respect their parents. He must earn money.
advisability (should) – You should be more careful.
necessity (need) – He did not need to be told twice.
refusal (will not/won’t) – The car won’t start. (It “refuses” to start).
Some important modal phrases:
1. To have + Infinitive (obligation, necessity) is used as a modal expression in three tense forms:
Present, Past and Future Indefinite.
I have to get up at seven every day. Did you have to get up at 7 on Sunday? She will
have to come on time.
2. To be + Infinitive (rather strict obligation, a planned action) is used as a modal expression in
two tenses: Present and Past Indefinite (was, were).
You are to go straight to your room. We were to meet at the entrance of the theatre at a
quarter to seven.
Remember:

Be able to is possible instead of can, but can is more usual; can has only two forms: can (present)
and could (past). Sometimes we have to use be able to:
I haven’t been able to sleep very well recently (can has no Present Perfect).
I’ll be able to help you (can has no Future Indefinite).

Could is the past of can especially with these verbs: see, hear, smell, taste, feel, remember and
understand:
I could remember only a few words.
I could play handball very well when I was at school. (General ability to do something).

If we mean that someone managed to do something in one particular situation, we have to use
was/were able to (not could):
He was a good runner so he was able to escape from the prison.

We sometimes use could to talk about possible future actions, especially when we make
suggestions and could have (done) to say that we had the ability or the oportunity to do something
but did not do it:
We could go to the theatre this evening (Present). We could have gone to the theatre
but we decided to stay at home. (Past)(We had the opportunity to go out but we didn’t.)

Mainly it doesn’t matter which of must (do) or have to (do) we use:
I must / have to go.
But with must the speaker gives his own feelings:
Lina is seriously ill. I must visit her.
With have to the speaker gives facts:
I have to get up early tomorrow.
Must is only used when we talk about the present and future:
I must read it. Must you hand it in next week?
Have to can be used in all forms:
We have to write about it. We had to write about it. We’ll have to write about it.

We use do / does / did with have to in present/past questions and negative sentences:
Do you work? No, I’m extremely rich so I don’t have to work. She doesn’t have to get
up so early. She gets up early because she prefers to.

Mustn’t and don’t have to are completely different:
You mustn’t forget what I told you. (It is necessary that you do not forget). You don’t
have to read this book. (It is not necessary to do it).

Needn’t (do) means that it is not necessary to do something:
You needn’t worry.

Instead of needn’t you can use don’t / doesn’t need to:
You don’t need to worry.

We use needn’t have + Past Participle (–ed etc.) to say that someone did something but it wasn’t
necessary:
I needn’t have hurried because the train was late.

Didn’t need to is different from needn’t have:
I didn’t need to read, so I didn’t. (An action was unnecessary). I needn’t have taken an
umbrella, it didn’t rain. (It was not known at the time that the action was not necessary.)
3. English tense usage in the Active Voice
Remember:

When you make a suggestion, you can say Why don’t you ...? :
I am hungry. Why don’t we go and have a bite?

When talking about one’s native country or city / town, we say:
“Where do you come from? Where are you from?” but not “Where are you coming
from?”
We say “He comes from Germany” but not “He is coming from Germany.”

Present Simple is used when we say how often we do things (every day (week etc.), often, usually,
sometimes etc.). We say:
“I go to the university every week” but not “I am going to the university every week”.
We say ”She often visits us” but not “She is often visiting us”.
We say “He usually watches TV in the evening” but not “He is usually watching TV in the
evening”.
Table of Tenses (Active)
Time
Present
Past
Future
Future in the
Past
Aspect
Indefinite
I go to the
club every
week.
Continuous
(Don’t speak When I came (Don’t come
to him.) He he was
at 8.) I shall
is working.
working.
be working.
He said he
would be
working at 8
o’clock.
Perfect
1. (I can
return the
books to the
library.) I
have read
them.
I said I should
have read all
the books by
the 1st of
May.
2. I have
already
known him
for 2 years.
Perfect
Continuous
I went to the
club last
week.
I shall go to
the club next
week.
1. I had read
all the books
by the 1st of
September.
1. I shall have
read all the
books by the
1st of May.
2. By 1994 I
had known
him for 10
years.
2. By 2000 I
shall have
known him
for 16 years.
1. I have
1. I had been By the 1st of
been reading reading that June I shall
this book for book for a
have been
I said I should
go to the club
the following
week.
I said (that) by
the 1st of June
I should have
a week.
week when
reading the
you asked me book for a
month.
2. (I am very for it.
tired.) I have
been reading 2. (I was very
a lot.
tired.)
been reading
the book for a
month.
I had been
reading a lot.

Do not use will to talk about what you have arranged to do in the nearest future:
She is going to Paris next week (but not “She will go” because she has already planned
it).

When we are talking about timetables, programmes etc., we say:
“The train leaves at 7.00 p. m.” but not “The train is leaving at 7.00 p. m.”.
We say “Tomorrow is Monday” but not “Tomorrow will be Monday”.

When we offer, agree or refuse, promise and ask, we say:
“I’ll help you” but not “I help you”.
We say “I’ll bring it back as soon as possible” but not “I bring ...”
We say “I promise I’ll phone” but not “I promise I phone...”
We say “Will you lend me a book?” but not “Do you lend me a book ?”

We use shall (not will) in the questions shall I ...? and shall we ...?
Shall I read ?

We are not to mix gone to and been to:
He is away on business. He has gone to New York. (He is there now or he is on his way
there.)
Lina is at home now. She has been to Belgium. (She has been there but now she has
returned home.)

We often use have got / has got rather than have / has alone:
We’ve got a new house. Have you got a new house?
But in the past we do not normally use got:
When we lived in Kaunas, we had an old house. Did you have an old house when you
lived in Alytus?
“Have got” is not possible in these expressions: have breakfast (lunch, dinner, a cup of coffee,
etc.); have a swim (a walk, a holiday etc.); have a bath / a wash etc.; have a look (at sth.); have a
baby; have a chat; have a good time.
We make questions and negative sentences with these expressions using do / does / did:
I didn’t have a good time yesterday.

We are not to confuse I used to do and I am used to doing. The structures and their meanings are
different:
I used to spend a lot of money. (I spent much money but I no longer spend it.)
I am used to spending a lot of money. (I spend much money; it is like a habit because I
have been spending a lot of money for some time.)


There are some verbs which are not normally used in continuous tenses (but there are exceptions):
want, like, belong, know, suppose, need, love, see, realise, mean, prefer, hate, hear, believe,
understand, remember, forget, seem, sound, appear, smell, taste, wish, own, think (when the
meaning is “believe”), have (when it is used for actions or the meaning is “possess”).
Conditionals (if and wish sentences) are formed in this way:
a) Present Tense after if / Future Tense in the main clause:
If you get up earlier, we’ll be in time.
b) Past Simple after if / Future in the Past in the main clause:
If you got up earlier, we would be in time. (But we probably won’t.)
If I were you, I would go to the meeting. (But, of course, I am not you.)
c) Past Perfect after if /Future in the Past Perfect in the main clause:
If I had had enough money, I would have bought that castle.
(Hypothesis about the past. It is impossible to change what happened now.)
d) we also use the past for a present situation after wish:
I wish I knew English better. (I don’t know it very well.)
e) in if sentences and after wish we can use were instead of was:
If I were you I would phone him. = If I was you... .
I wish my dress were more beautiful. = I wish my dress was... .
f) simply, we don’t use would in the if part of the sentence or after wish:
If I were a Queen, I would travel a lot (not If I would be...).
g) we don’t use will/shall after in case, with unless, as long as, provided or providing
when we are talking about the future:
He is going to take an umbrella in case it rains. We’ll be late unless we hurry.
Providing he studies hard he will pass an exam.
h) in case of is different from in case:
In case of fire, please leave the building as soon as possible (if the building is on fire).
4. English tense usage in the Passive Voice
Table of Tenses (Passive)
Time Present
Past
Future
Future in the
Past
Aspect
Indefinite
I am arrested. I was arrested. I shall be
arrested.
He is
He was
arrested.
arrested.
He will be
arrested.
We are
We were
arrested.
arrested.
We shall be
arrested.
Continuous I am being
arrested.
He is being
arrested.
He said I
should be
arrested.
They said he
would be
arrested.
I was being
arrested.
He was being
arrested.
We are being We were being
arrested.
arrested.
I have been
arrested.
I had been
arrested.
He has been
arrested.
He had been
arrested.
Perfect
We have been We had been
arrested.
arrested.
Perfect
Continuous
Remember:
I shall have
He said I
been arrested. should have
been arrested.
He will have
been arrested. They said he
would have
We shall have been arrested.
been arrested.


Be born is a passive verb and is usually past: I was born in Vilnius.
Some verbs can have two objects: They didn’t offer Andrew the job. (The two objects Andrew
and the job).
So it is possible to make two different passive sentences: Andrew wasn’t offered the job. The job
wasn’t offered to Andrew.
5. A Table of Irregular Verbs
Infinitive
Past
Past Participle
abide
abode
abode, abided
arise
arose
arisen
awake
awoke
awake, awoken
be
was
been
bear
bore
born
beat
beat
beaten
become
became
become
begin
began
begun
bend
bent
bent, bended
bet
bet, betted
bet, betted
bid
bade, bid
bidden, bid
bind
bound
bound
bite
bit
bitten, bit
bleed
bled
bled
blow
blew
blown
break
broke
broken
breed
bred
bred
bring
brought
brought
build
built
built
burn
burnt, burned
burnt, burned
burst
burst
burst
buy
bought
bought
cast
cast
cast
catch
caught
caught
choose
chose
chosen
cleave
clove, cleft, cleaved
cloven, cleft
cling
clung
clung
clothe
clothed
clothed, clad
come
came
come
cost
cost
cost
creep
crept
crept
cut
cut
cut
deal
dealt
dealt
dig
dug
dug
do
did
done
draw
drew
drawn
dream
dreamt, dreamed
dreamt, dreamed
drink
drank
drunk, drunken
drive
drove
driven
dwell
dwelt
dwelt
eat
ate
eaten
fall
fell
fallen
feed
fed
fed
feel
felt
felt
fight
fought
fought
find
found
found
flee
fled
fled
fling
flung
flung
fly
flew
flown
forsake
forsook
forsaken
forswear
forswore
forsworn
freeze
froze
frozen
get
got
got
gird
girded
girded, girt
give
gave
given
go
went
gone
grind
ground
ground
grow
grew
grown
hang
hung
hung
have
had
had
hear
heard
heard
hew
hewed
hewn
hide
hid
hidden, hid
hit
hit
hit
hold
held
held
hurt
hurt
hurt
keep
kept
kept
kneel
knelt
knelt
knit
knitted, knit
knitted, knit
know
knew
known
lade
laded
laden
lay
laid
laid
lead
led
led
lean
leant, leaned
leant, leaned
leap
leapt, leaped
leapt, leaped
learn
learnt, learned
learnt, learned
leave
left
left
lend
lent
lent
let
let
let
lie
lay
lain
light
lighted, lit
lit, lighted
lose
lost
lost
make
made
made
mean
meant
meant
meet
met
met
mow
mowed
mown, moved
pay
paid
paid
prove
proved
proved, proven
put
put
put
read
read
read
rend
rent
rent
rid
rid, ridded
rid, ridded
ride
rode
ridden
ring
rang
rung
rise
rose
risen
run
ran
run
saw
sawed
sawn, sawed
say
said
said
see
saw
seen
seek
sought
sought
sell
sold
sold
send
sent
sent
set
set
set
sew
sewed
sewn, sewed
shake
shook
shaken
shave
shaved
shaved, shaven
shear
sheared / shore
shorn, sheared
shed
shed
shed
shine
shone
shone
shoe
shod
shod
shoot
shot
shot
show
showed
shown, showed
shrink
shrank
shrunk, shrunken
shrive
shrived
shriven
shut
shut
shut
sing
sang
sung
sink
sank
sunk, sunken
sit
sat
sat
slay
slew
slain
sleep
slept
slept
slide
slid
slid, slidden
slink
slunk
slunk
smell
smelt, smelled
smelt, smelled
sow
sowed
sown, sowed
speak
spoke
spoken
speed
sped
sped
spell
spelt, spelled
spelt, spelled
spend
spent
spent
spill
spilt, spilled
spilt, spilled
spin
spun, span
spun
spit
spat
spat
split
split
split
spoil
spoilt, spoiled
spoilt, spoiled
spread
spread
spread
spring
sprang
sprung
stand
stood
stood
stave
staved, stove
staved, stove
steal
stole
stolen
stick
stuck
stuck
sting
stung
stung
stride
strode
stridden, strid
strike
struck
struck, stricken
strive
strove
striven
swear
swore
sworn
sweep
swept
swept
swell
swelled
swollen, swelled
swim
swam
swum
swing
swung
swung
take
took
taken
teach
taught
taught
tear
tore
torn
tell
told
told
think
thought
thought
thrive
throve, thrived
thriven, thrived
throw
threw
thrown
thrust
thrust
thrust
tread
trod
trodden, trod
understand
understood
understood
upset
upset
upset
wake
woke, waked
woken, waked
wear
wore
worn
weave
wove
woven, wove
wed
wedded
wedded, wed
weep
wept
wept
wet
wet, wetted
wet, wetted
win
won
won
wind
wound
wound
write
wrote
written
Į pradžią
3.2. VERBS + ... ING OR THE INFINITIVE?
1. Verb + ... ing (The Gerund)
The Gerund is formed by adding the suffix – ing to the stem of the verb, and coincides in form with
Participle I.
It is used:
1. After prepositions (before, after, without, by, about, at, to, of, in, with, for, in spite of, instead
of): She left without saying a word.
2. After certain verbs (enjoy, avoid, admit, deny, mind, delay, stop, finish, suggest, fancy, imagine,
regret, consider, involve, practise, miss): I enjoy going to the theatre.
3. As the subject or object of a sentence: Smoking is bad for your health.
4. After some idiomatic expressions (It’s no use .../ It’s no good .../ There is no point in .../ It’s
(not) worth ...) : This is an excellent picture. It’s worth buying. There is no point in waiting all
day.
5. After the following expressions: (give up (= stop), put off (= postpone), go on (= continue),
carry on (= continue), keep or keep on (= do sth. continuously or repeatedly)): I cannot go on
reading it.
Remember:


The passive form (being done / being seen / being told etc.): I don’t mind being told what to do.
Many verbs have the structure verb (V) + preposition (P) + object (talk about): We talked about
the problem.
If the object is another verb, it ends in –ing: We talked about going to Paris. (V + P + –ing).
Here are some more verbs which have the structure V + P + –ing (succeed in, think about / of,
approve / disapprove of, feel like, dream of, look forward to, insist on, decide against, apologise
for): She insisted on staying longer.

These verbs have the structure verb + object + preposition + –ing (accuse sb. of, congratulate sb.
on, stop sb. from, suspect sb. of, prevent sb. from, thank sb. for, forgive sb. for, warn sb. against):
They accused him of being rude.
2. Verbs + The Infinitive
It is used:
1. After certain verbs (agree, appear, attempt, choose, dare, decide, expect, help, learn, manage,
need, offer, promise, refuse, seem, afford, hope): I hope to learn it very quickly.
2. After certain verbs followed by an object (allow, encourage, force, order, persuade, remind,
teach, tell, warn, advise, invite): I allowed them to stay longer.
3. After certain verbs which sometimes take an object and sometimes don’t (ask, expect, want,
like): I want to find out the answer. I want you to find out the answer. I’d like to help you. I’d
like you to give her a message.
But never say: I want that you... I’d like that you...
4. After certain adjectives: It’s difficult to understand the situation. It’s possible to enter the
University.
5. After make and let: He made me believe him again. (Active – without to). I was made to
believe again. (Passive – with to). I was allowed to borrow the car. (“Let” in the sense of “allow”
is not possible in the passive.)
6. To express purpose: I returned here to pay the bill.
7. After certain verbs followed by question words (what, where, who, how, when, whether etc.): I
didn’t know what to do. How to get to the bus–station? I don’t know where to write it.
3. Verbs + ... ing (The Gerund) or verbs + The Infinitive ?
1. With continue, start, begin either the Gerund or the Infinitive can be used: It started to rain /
raining.
2. Remember, forget, stop, try (the meaning changes greatly depending on whether the Gerund or
the Infinitive is used): I remember being very unhappy as a teenager. (The Gerund refers to
actions and states in the past, i. e. before the remembering, etc. take place.)
Remember to put some petrol in the car! (The Infinitive refers to actions that must still be done, i.
e. that happen after the remembering, etc.)


Try + infinitive is your goal; it is what you want to do.
Try + gerund is the method you use to achieve that goal.
3. Prefer to do, prefer doing: I prefer doing something to (doing) something else but I prefer to
do something rather than (do) something else.
I prefer teaching to studying but I prefer to teach rather than learn.
4. Would prefer (to do): “Shall we go by taxi?” “Well, I’d prefer to go by bus (not going).”.
5. Would rather (do) = is used for preference – we use the Infinitive after it without to: I would
rather go to work.
6. We can also use – ing after while or when: Mind your head when going upstairs(= when you
are going).
7. Had better = is used for advice – and the Infinitive without to is used:
You had better stay in bed with your cold.
Į pradžią
3.3. NOUNS
1. Count nouns and non–count nouns:
Singular
Count Nouns
Non–count Nouns
a pen
money
one pen
some money
a great deal of money
a little money
much money
little money
Plural
pens, few pens
two pens, a few pens
some pens
many pens
several pens
a lot of pens
a) take “a /
an” or “one”
in the singular
a) do not take “a /
an” or “one” in the
singular
b) usually take
a final “s / es”
in the plural
b) do not generally
have a plural form
Remember: some count nouns are irregular:
man – men foot – feet woman – women
tooth – teeth child – children mouse – mice
A list of some non–count nouns:
advice
fruit
luck
rice
air
fun
luggage
sadness
bread
furniture
machinery
salt
butter
happiness
meat
scenery
cheese
homework
milk
significance
clothing
honesty
money
silver
coffee
housework
music
sugar
courage
information
pepper
tea
equipment
intelligence
postage
traffic
evidence
jealousy
pottery
violence
enjoyment
jewellery
poverty
etc.
food
knowledge
progress
A table of noun determiners:
Count Nouns
Non–count Nouns
this, that, these, those
this, that
(a) few
(a) little
many
much
a lot of
a lot of
one, two, three,...
the
a, the
some, any
some, any
a large amount of
a great number of
the amount of
the number of
less ... than
fewer ... than
more ... than
more ... than
Remember: the underlined words can be used with both count and
non–count nouns.
2. Genitives: “s” or “of the” ?
We normally use ‘s when the first noun is a person or an animal:
They came to my father’s party.
Otherwise (with things) we normaly use ... of the ...
Thank goodness it’s the end of the exams.
But!.. sometimes you can use ‘s
a) when the first noun is an organization (= a group of people):
the government’s economic policy or the economic policy of the government
b) when the noun is a place:
the town’s cinema or the cinema of the town
c) with time words or periods of time:
Send me, please, last Friday’s papers.
I’ve got an hour’s work.
Nouns, which do not end in –s, form the genitive case in this way:
my neighbour’s house; a people’s problem;
Nouns ending in –s form the genitive case in two ways and the ending is pronounced [iz] whether the letter
s is written or not:
my neighbours’ (neighbour’s) house;
Dickens’ (Dickens’s) novel.
Remember:

you can use ‘s after more than one noun:
Mr and Mrs Smith’s garden.

you can use ‘s without a following noun:
Mike’s report is much better than Andrew’s.
Be very careful with Double genitive:
Here’s a photo of you (you are in the picture).
Here’s a photo of yours (the photo belongs to you, but you need not be shown in it).
Look at this picture of my mother (she is the person in the picture).
Look at this picture of my mother’s (the picture belongs to her).
Į pradžią
3.4. ARTICLES
The Indefinite Article “a”/ “an” is used:
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before singular count nouns to mean one (a house, a book etc.);
in a general statement (A lion is a wild animal);
to introduce a new subject (She bought a new umbrella);
with a complement including names of professions(a teacher, a great man);
with certain numerical expressions (a couple, a dozen, a hundred, a great many, a great deal, a
lot of).
An is used before the words that begin with a vowel or a vowel sound:
an hour, an honour, an honest ..., an eye but ...a university, a universal ... , a union.
The Definite Article “the” is used:

when both speakers have a specific thing or person in mind:
Could you shut the window?

when something is unique:
The earth is round.

when the 2nd time the speaker mentions a noun:
I saw a woman. The woman looked like your mother.

with the names of musical instruments:
He plays the piano.

with the superlative degree of adjectives:
It is the longest river in Lithuania.

when speaking about a specific noun:
The coffee we had was not good.

with the words like office, movies, theatre:
He went to the movies.

with the names of some countries (the USA, the Ukraine, the Caucasus, the United Kingdom, etc):
She lives in the USA.

with the names of island groups:
They went to the Philippines.

with the names of geographic areas:
It happened in the Middle East.

with the names of universities, colleges and schools when the name begins with “school”:
He studies at the University of Vytautas Magnus.

with the names of wars (excluding World Wars):
They participated in the Civil War.

with the names of ships, trains, aeroplanes:
We travelled by the Kaunas.

with the names of oceans, rivers, gulfs, plural lakes, seas and mountain ranges:
I like to spend time by the Neris.
The Definite Article is not used:
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with the names of singular lakes, mountains, islands (Haiti, Lake Galvė);
with the singular names of countries(Lithuania, Sweden);
with the names of continents (Asia, Africa, Europe);
with the names of states, towns, streets (Kaunas, Idaho);
with the names of general subjects (History, English);
with the names of people (Eve, Andrew);

with the names of universities, colleges and schools beginning with a proper noun (Oxford,
Cambridge, Harward).
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3.5. PRONOUNS
Subject Pronouns
Object Pronouns
Possessive Pronouns
Possessive Adjectives
Reflexive Pronouns
Relative Pronouns
I
We
You
You
He, she, it
They
Me
Us
You
You
Him, her, it
Them
Mine
Ours
Yours
Yours
His, hers, its
Theirs
My
Our
Your
Your
His, her, its
Their
Myself
Ourselves
Yourself
Yourselves
Himself, herself,
Itself
Themselves
Who
Which
Whom
That
Whose
Remember:
1. The subject pronoun is used:

after the verb “to be”:
It is he in the picture (formal). It is him in the picture (informal).

when the subjects of two clauses are compared:
You speak louder than I (do).
2. The object pronoun is used:

when the objects of two clauses are compared:
They helped you more than me.

after prepositions:
He studies with her.
3. The possessive pronoun is used:

to replace a possessive adjective + noun.
Instead of saying “This book is my book” we say “This book is mine”.

after the preposition “of”, when it indicates “one of several”:
I saw a friend of yours yesterday.

after the verb “to be”:
This handbag is mine.

to replace the second adjective + noun when comparing two objects:
My house is bigger than yours.
4. Pronoun / adjective agreement:

singular pronoun, singular verb:
everybody
somebody
anybody
nobody
everyone
someone
anyone
no one
everything
something
anything
nothing
Everybody is present.

plural possessive adjectives, plural verb:
both ... and ...
Both Andrew and Lina are preparing for their wedding ceremony.

possessive adjectives agree with the closest subject (the adjective agrees with the subject which is
closer):
either ... or
neither ... nor
not only ... but also
Neither Andrew nor his friend are going to his class. Not only the principal but also the
teachers have had their pay increased.

collective nouns are the words indicating a number of people, animals or things. The following
collective nouns can be either singular or plural depending on whether a singular or plural
meaning is desired, i. e. if the individual members are acting as a group or separately:
organisation, family, committee, class, government, crowd, assembly, team, public, crew, faculty,
jury.
The team is playing its game very well (as a group). The team are returning to their
families (separately).
The following nouns are used to indicate groups of animals and are considered as
singular: flock of birds / sheep, herd of cattle, school of fish, swarm of bees, pack of
wolves, colony of ants.
The pack of wolves attacked its prey.
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3.6. MODIFIERS
1. Adjectives:
When several adjectives modify one noun, the adjective with general meaning (opinion) comes first and the
specific adjective (fact) comes last:
a pretty silk dress
An adjective is used:
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after linking verbs (these verbs show no action): be, seem, appear, become, grow, stay, remain,
get, go, prove, turn.
I got bored.
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after sense verbs (no action): look, sound, smell, taste, feel.
I felt happy.
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in special combinations: keep quiet, open wide, stand still.
But after the other verbs you must use adverbs.
The suffix –ly can be used to form both adjectives and adverbs.
Noun
Adjective
Adjective
Adverb
world
worldly
slow
slowly
friend
friendly
sad
sadly
Most adjectives have degrees of comparison: comparative and superlative.
Adjectives form their degrees of comparison in the following way:
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adjectives of one or two syllables and adjectives of two syllables which end in –y, –ow, –er, –le
form their degrees by the inflexion –er, –est:
nice
nicer
(the) nicest
quick
quicker
(the) quickest
easy
easier
(the) easiest
narrow
narrower
(the) narrowest
simple
simpler
(the) simplest
complete
completer
(the) completest

some adjectives have irregular forms of degrees of comparison:
bad
worse
(the) worst
good
better
(the) best
many, much
more
(the) most
little
less
(the) least
far
farther
(the) farthest
further
(the) furthest

some adjectives form their degrees of comparison by placing more /most before the adjective (
there are adjectives of three and more syllables, ending in –ful, –ible, –ous, –ish, –less, –like etc.):
beautiful
more beautiful
(the) most beautiful
harmless
more harmless
(the) most harmless
difficult
more difficult
(the) most difficult
Remember :
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the structure the + comparative ... the + comparative:
The more expensive the hotel, the better the service. The more you have, the more you
want.

when we make a comparision of equals, we use: not as ... as, not so ... as, as ... as, twice as ... as,
the same as:
She isn’t as young as she looks. He is not so rich as Lina. I’ll return as soon as
possible. The house is three times as big as ours. My salary is the same as hers.

after than and as it is more usual to say me / him / her etc. when there is no verb. Compare these
sentences:
You made the same mistake as I made.
You made the same mistake as me.

older / elder (we use elder when we are talking about the members of a family but before a noun):
Her elder sister is a nurse.
His brother is older than him.
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comparison of health: well / ill, better / worse.
2. Adverbs:
They modify a verb and they are formed by adding –ly to an adjective, unless the adjective ends in “y” and
has two syllables:
Adjective
Adverb
slow
slowly
quick
quickly
easy
easily
busy
busily
Exceptions:
Adjective
Adverb
hard
hard
fast
fast
late
late
low
low
Remember:

Adverbs never / often / usually / always / soon / sometimes / seldom are placed before the main
verb except for the auxiliary verbs to be, to have, can etc. which it follows:
I always taste new dishes. I am always very careful with mushrooms.
We also use all / both in the same positions:
My parents are both teachers. They both felt ill.
Enough: adj / adv + enough; enough + noun:
She speaks well enough. It isn’t good enough. I have enough money.

Comparatives and superlatives of adverbs:
Andrew studies as seriously as Lina (a comparison of equals).
Ann studies better than her brother (the comparative degree).
He ran the fastest (the superlative degree).
One–syllable adverbs use –er and –est to form the degrees of comparison, also the adverb early:
early
earlier
(the) earliest
hard
harder
(the) hardest
Adverbs ending in –ly form the degrees by means of more / most:
beautifully
more beautifully
(the) most beautifully
quickly
more quickly
(the) most quickly
Some adverbs have irregular forms of comparison:
well
better
(the) best
badly
worse
(the) worst
Remember:
Most before an adjective or an adverb can also mean very:
The book you lent me was most interesting. (Without the)
You are most welcome. (Without the)
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3.7. PREPOSITIONS
1. According to their meaning, prepositions may be divided into:
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prepositions of place/direction (in, on, below, under, between, etc.);
prepositions of time (after, before, at, on, in, for, during, by, until, etc.);
prepositions expressing abstract relations (by, with, because of, with a view to, etc.).
Remember:
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at night
at the week–end / at week–ends
at Christmas / at Easter (but on Christmas Eve)
at the moment / at present
at the same time
at the age of ...
We do not use at / on / in before last / next:
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I’ll return next month.
in a few minutes
in a week (in a week’s time)
in six months (in six months’ time)
We say somebody is:
on a farm at work at school at a station in bed
at home at university at the seaside in hospital
in prison
We say:

to arrive in a country / town:
He arrived in Kaunas.

to arrive at with other places, buildings, events, etc.
When did you arrive at the party?

to arrive home (without a preposition):
When did he arrive home?
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to travel by car, by train, by plane, by boat / ship, by bus, by bicycle;
also: by road, by rail, by air, by sea, by Underground;
but: in my car, in his car, in the car, in a car;
in a taxi;
on my bicycle, on the bus, on the 6.15 train, on a big ship;
to come on time = punctual, not late;
and in time = soon enough for something / soon enough to do something:
The 11.45 train left on time (= it left at 11.45).
Will you come home in time for dinner (= soon enough for dinner) ?

at the end (of something) = at the time when something ends:
at the end of the month; at the end of July; at the end of the film

in the end = finally:
We waited ages for a taxi. We gave up in the end and walked home.
2. Some nouns + preposition:

a rise / an increase / a fall / a decrease in something:
There was a fall in the number of people without jobs this year.

an advantage / a disadvantage of something:
The advantage of living in the city is ..., but There is (are) an advantage in doing
something.

a photograph / a picture of somebody / something:
A photograph of his wife.

a solution to a problem / an answer to a question / a reply to a letter / a key to a door:
Give me the answer to my question.

an attitude to / towards somebody / something:
Her attitude to / towards his trips is negative.

to pay by cheque, to pay in cash or to pay cash; (to do something) by mistake, by accident, by
chance; in(my) opinion; (to be) on fire:
The house was on fire.

(to be/to go) on a diet, (to be/to go) on strike, (to be/to go) on holiday/on business/on a trip/on a
tour/on an excursion/on a cruise, etc.
3. Adjectives + prepositions
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delighted / pleased / satisfied / disappointed with something;
bored / fed up with something;
surprised / shocked / amazed / astonished at / by something;
excited / worried / upset about something;
afraid / frightened / terrified / scared of somebody / something;
proud / ashamed of somebody / something;
jealous / envious / suspicious of somebody / something;
good / bad / excellent / brilliant / hopeless at(doing) something;
angry / annoyed / furios about something, with someone for doing something;
responsible for something;
interested in something;
capable / incapable of something;
fond of something;
tired of something;
keen on something;
similar to something.
4. Verbs + prepositions
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believe in something / somebody;
belong to somebody / something;
consist of something;
complain (to somebody) about somebody / something;
depend on somebody / something;
laugh / smile at somebody / something;
listen to somebody / something;
live on money / food;
look at somebody / something (= look in the direction of);
look for somebody / something (= try to find);
look after somebody / something (= take care of);
rely on somebody / something;
speak / talk to somebody;
wait for somebody / something;
write (to) somebody.
We do not use preposition with these verbs: phone someone, discuss something, enter (go into) a place.
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3.8. SYNTAX
1. Word Order
Usual word order in English – Subject + Verb + Object
I like English.
The subject and verb are inverted when a sentence begins with:
Never
Nowhere
At no time
Little
Rarely
Not
Nor
Even less
Seldom
No longer
Neither
So
Not only
Barely (ever)
On no account
Such
Hardly ever
Scarcely (ever)
By no means
Never will I smoke again. Hardly had I entered the room,
when the telephone rang.
Only after
Only by chance
Only on rare occasions
Only once
Only today
Only with difficulty
Only then
Only yesterday
Only by luck
Only once did he come late to school.
Down / out / up / in + Verb + Subject
Out ran the children when the bell rang.
In front of ...
In...
In the corner of ...
Under ...
Under a tree slept a man.
On ...
There + Verb + ...
At the ...
It + Verb + ..
There is no time left.
It takes a lot of time to read such a thick book.
Questions:
a) We usually make questions by changing word order:
It is raining. Is it raining? I can read. Can I read?
b) We use do, does in present simple questions:
Do you work? Where do you work?
and use did in past simple questions:
How did you like it? Where did she go?
Remember: if who/what/which is the subject of the sentence do not use do/does/did:
Lina wrote Andrew a letter. Who did Lina write a letter? Who wrote Andrew a letter?
c) We use negative questions:
o
o
o
to show surprise: Didn’t you hear about it?
in exclamations (!): Doesn’t it sound wonderfully!
when we expect the listener to agree with us: “Haven’t we met before?”, “Yes, we
have.”
d) The word order is the same as the statement in indirect reported questions:
Where can I change some money? (Simple question)
Could you tell me where I can change some money? (Indirect
question)
When does the train leave? (Simple question)
Do you know when the train leaves? (Indirect question)
Remember:

use if or whether where there is no other question word:
Is it time to go? I wonder if it is the time to go.

we often use auxiliary verbs:
1) When we don’t want to repeat something:
“Does he smoke?”, “He did but he doesn’t any more.”
“Is she at home?”, “Yes, she is”.
2) In short questions:
“I’ve just seen Lina.” “Oh, have you?”
“Andrew is ill.” “Is he?”
3) With so and neither (nor):
I went to the cinema yesterday so did Jim.
“I never smoke.”, “Neither do I / nor do I.” (Mind the word order).
4) In question tags:
Normally we use a positive question tag with a negative question and v. v.: He
won’t come, will he? He will come, won’t he?
Remember: Let’s visit them, shall we? Don’t shout, will
you? Unlock the door, will you? I am late, aren’t I?
2. Subject–verb agreement
It presents difficulty to most learners of English since some subjects take a singular verb, some may take
either a singular or plural verb, and some take a plural verb:
a) subjects which take a singular verb: news, politics, economics, statistics, physics,
mumps, measles, mathematics, furniture, advice etc.:
No news is good news.
The following prepositional phrases take a singular verb: together with, as well as, along
with, in addition to, accompanied by.
The principal, accompanied by his wife, is arriving today.
b) subjects which take a plural verb: and, both, police, both...and, many, several, few:
Both my sister and my brother are here. A few have arrived.
c) subjects which may take either a singular verb or a plural one: pants, shorts, glasses,
thanks, trousers, jeans, pliers, means. These nouns take a singular verb when the phrase
“pair of” or “word of” is included, but take a plural verb when these words are not
included:
Many thanks were given. A word of thanks was given. A number of people have called.
The number of people at the exhibit was amazing.
d) none, no, all, some, most, half, any, majority – these words may take a singular or a
plural verb depending on the noun which follows them:
None of the furniture was sold. None of the dresses are nice. Either our teachers or
our principal is coming.
c) nouns for nationality ending in –ese, –ch, –sh take a singular verb when referring to the
language, but a plural verb + the when referring to the people.
French is spoken in parts of Canada. The French are known for their gastronomy.
3. Reported Speech
When we use reported speech, we usually talk about the past. So verbs usually change to the past in
reported speech.
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
(Direct speech) “My parents live in Canada”, Jim said.
(Reported speech) Jim said his parents lived in Canada.
The Past Simple Tense usually can stay the same in reported speech, or you can change it to the Past
Perfect Tense.
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(Direct speech) “Tom worked very hard”, Lina said.
(Reported speech) Lina said Tom worked (had worked) hard.
If the verb is in the Present Simple Tense in the principal clause, a present tense, a past tense or a future
tense may be used in the subordinate clause.
But if the verb is in one of the past tenses in the principal clause, a past tense (or future in the past) must be
used in the subordinate clause. It is so called the sequence of tenses.
Sequence of Tenses
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
Present Indefinite
Past Indefinite
Present Continuous
Past Continuous
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous
Past Perfect Continuous
Future Indefinite
Future Indefinite in the Past
Future Continuous
Future Continuous in the Past
Future Perfect
Future Perfect in the Past
Future Perfect Continuous
Future Perfect Continuous in the Past
Past Indefinite
Past Perfect (Past Indefinite)
Past Continuous
generally remains unchanged or becomes
the Past Perfect Continuous
Past Perfect
remains unchanged
Past Perfect Continuous
Subjunctive (conditional)
remains unchanged
remains unchanged
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
now
then
here
there
this, these
that, those
today
that day
tomorrow
the next day, the following day,
the day after
yesterday
the day before, the previous day
next week
the following week
last week
the previous week
last night
the night before
last year
the year before
Remember:
1. It is not always necessary to change the verb when you use reported speech. If you are reporting
something and you feel that it is still true, you do not need to change the tense of the verb:


(Direct) She said “Vilnius is the capital of Lithuania.”
(Reported) She said Vilnius is (or was) the capital of Lithuania.
2. Must / might / could / would / should / ought stay the same in reported speech.
3. We also use the Infinitive (to do / to stay etc.) in reported speech, especially with tell / ask:


(Direct) “Don’t cry”, I said to Lina.
(Reported) I asked / told Lina not to cry.
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3.9. VOCABULARY
1. Commonly Misused Words
The following list contains pairs of words that often cause problems because they sound alike or have a
similar meaning. Learn to distinguish between them.
1. ACCEPT(v), EXCEPT(prep): accept means answer affirmatively, agree; except means omitting.
We accepted their offer of a 10% salary increase. Answer all the questions except no.2.
2. ADVICE (n), ADVISE (v): advice means an opinion; advise means give an opinion.
He never listened to his father’s advice. They advised us to take precautions in the hot
climate.
3. AFFECT (v), EFFECT (n): affect means influence (v); effect means result (n), achieve (v).
The drug was not affecting his speech. The effect of the drug was quick.
4. AGAIN (adv), AGAINST (prep): again means another time; against means in opposition to
something or someone.
John took the test again for a better score. The director was against the idea.
5. AMONG (prep), BETWEEN (prep): among is used for three or more persons or things; between
is used for two persons or things.
The question was discussed between John and Bob. The question was discussed among
all the members of the faculty.
6. BARELY (adv), HARDLY (adv): barely means only just; hardly means with difficulty.
I could hardly hear the lecturer at the back of the hall. He had barely enough money to
cover the bill.
7. BESIDE (prep), BESIDES (prep): beside means near to; besides means in addition to.
She leaves her slippers beside her bed. Besides this test, I have two more this week.
8. DESSERT (n), DESERT (n): dessert means the final course of a meal, usually sweet; desert is a
hot, dry area.
Some people eat fruit for dessert. Cactuses grow in the desert.
9. FARTHER (adj), FURTHER (adj): both are used for distance but further is also used for time,
degree and quantity.
Do not read any further than Chapter One. San Diego is further / farther south than
Los Angeles.
10. FEWER (adj), LESS (adj): both mean a small amount or quantity but fewer is used with count
nouns and less with non–count nouns.
You should eat fewer candies. You should eat less sugar.
11. LATER (adj), LATTER (pron, adj): later is the comparative form of late; latter means the
second of two persons or things.
There is a yellow grammar book and a blue one, but the latter is better. You are busy
now, I’ll come back later.
12. LAY (v), LIE (v): lay (laid, laid, laying) means to place or put and takes an object; lie (lay,
lain, lying) means to repose horizontally and never takes an object.
He laid his hand on her head. She can lie in the sun for hours.
13. LIE (v), LIE (v): lie (lay, lain, lying) means to repose (as above); lie (lied, lied, lying) means
not to tell the truth.
He is lying on the sofa. He is lying again about why he did not phone.
14. LIKE (prep), SUCH AS (prep): like means in the manner of and takes an object; such as means
for example.
You sound like my teacher. Reading non–fiction such as newspapers and magazines
will help you.
15. LOOSE (adj), LOSE (v): loose is the opposite of tight; lose means be unable to find something,
or the opposite of win.
I always seem to lose my umbrella. She feels more comfortable in loose clothes. The
team never thought it would lose such an easy match.
16. PRINCIPAL (n, adj), PRINCIPLE (n): principal means very important, primary, or the director
of a school; principle means a belief or doctrine.
The principal of the school congratulated the faculty and the students on the good
results this year. The principal cause of World War I was the assassination of an
Austrian archduke.
We had to take a course in the principles of education.
17. QUIET (adj), QUITE (adv): quiet means without noise; quite means completely or fairly.
The classroom was quiet during the test. He was quite wrong to ignore the traffic lights
when they were red. The exam was quite difficult.
18. RAISE (v), RISE (v): raise means to lift and takes an object (raise, raised, raising); rise means
to go up and never takes an object (rise, rose, risen, rising).
He raised his hand. The sun rose.
19. REMEMBER (v), REMIND (v): remember means to recall or think again; remind means to
cause someone to remember.
It’s nice of you to remember my birthday. Can you remind me to bring you the book?
20. THOROUGH (adj), THROUGH (prep): thorough means complete; through means from one
side to the other side of something.
He looked through the window. The analysis was very thorough.
2. Two–word Verbs
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call up – telephone
call back – telephone
again
pick out – choose
give back – return
talk over – discuss
do over – repeat
fill out – complete
find out – discover
look over – examine
leave out – omit
call off – cancel
put back – replace
call in on – visit
look after – take care of
look like – resemble
get over – recover
wait on – serve
run into – meet by chance
run out of – consume
completely
pick on – bother
run over – hit by car
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keep on – continue
go over – review
look into – investigate
get along with – be friendly with
look for – search
show up – appear
take up – begin to study
drop off – leave
make up – invent
put out – extinguish
pass out – distribute
pass out – faint
bring up – raise
turn down – reduce the volume
figure out – solve
put off – postpone
turn in – retire
talk back to – answer rudely
look up to – respect
throw away – discard
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smart – intelligent
square – conventional
stupid – foolish
immature – childish
diligent – hard–working
conceited – stuck up
up–tight – anxious
3. Synonyms
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courteous – polite
infant – baby
shy – bashful
beautiful – lovely
rude – impolite
humorous – funny
adolescent – juvenile
courageous – brave
4.Proverbs and Sayings
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A friend in need is a friend indeed – Draugas bėdoje yra tikras draugas.
A hard nut to crack – Per kietas riešutas perkąsti.
A life's less ordinary – Toks paprastas gyvenimas!
All that glitters is not gold – Ne viskas auksas, kas auksu žiba.
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A man's as old as he feels and a woman's as old as she looks – Vyrui tiek metų, kaip jis jaučiasi,
moteriai tiek, kaip ji atrodo.
A stitch in time saves nine – Viena laiku susiūta siūlė sutaupo laiko kitoms devynioms.
A wolf in sheep's clothing – Vilkas avies kailyje.
Better late than never – Geriau vėliau negu niekada.
Don't cry over spilled milk – Neverk dėl išpilto pieno.
Don't judge a book by its cover – Nespręsk apie knygos turinį pagal viršelį.
Drink as you have brewed – Prisivirei arbatos, tai ir gerk ją.
Easier said than done – Lengviau pasakyti nei padaryti.
He that mischief hatches, mischief catches – Bėda užklumpa netikėtai tą, kuris ruošiasi pakenkti
kitam.
He who hesitates is lost – Kiekvieną abejonės pražudo.
He who laughs last laughs best – Tas, kuris juokiasi paskutinis, juokiasi smagiausiai.
If a man deceives me once, shame on him, if he deceives me twice, shame on me – Jei žmogus
apgavo mane vieną kartą – gėda jam, jei jis apgavo mane antrą kartą – gėda man.
In the evening one may praise the day – Dieną gali girti vakare. ( Negirk dienos be vakaro. )
Laughter is the best medicine – Juokas yra geriausias vaistas.
Still waters run deep – Ramūs vandenys teka giliai.
The pot calls the kettle black – Juokiasi puodas, kad katilas juodas.
Time heals all things – Laikas viską išgydo.
Too many cooks spoil the broth – Per daug virėjų sugadina sriubą.
You can't eat your cake and have it – Negalima suvalgyti pyragaitį ir vis dar turėti jį.
Young men think old men fools, and old men know young men to be so – Jauni žmonės galvoja,
kad seni žmonės kvaili, bet seni žmonės žino, kad jauni tokie yra.
You roll my log and I'll roll yours – Jei tu ridensi mano rąstą, aš ridensiu tavo.
Where there's a will there's a way – Kur yra noras, ten atsiras ir galimybės.
Who chatters to you will chatter of you – Kas apkalba kitus tau, tas apkalba tave patį kitiems.
5. American and British English
American and British English are two varieties of English that are very similar. But despite a lot of
similarities between them, there are enough differences of grammar and spelling, and much more of
vocabulary. Here are a few examples of vocabulary differences between American English and British
English:
American English
British English
Lietuviškai
Bangs
– fringe
– kirpčiukai;
Busy (phone)
– engaged (phone)
– užimta telefono
linija;
Call collect (phone)
– reverse the charges
(phone)
– pokalbis telefonu,
kurį apmoka tas,
kuriam skambinama;
Can
– tin
– skardinė;
Candy
– sweets
– saldainis (–iai);
Caravan
– trailer
– priekaba;
Circle
– balcony
– balkonas;
Closet
– cupboard
– indauja;
Cookie, cracker
– biscuit
– sausainis;
Crib
– cot
– vaikiška lovytė;
Cuffs
– turn–ups (on
trousers)
– atraitai (ant kelnių);
Diaper
– nappy
– vystyklai;
Doctor’s office
– doctor’s surgery
– gydytojo kabinetas;
Doghouse
– kenel
– šuns būda;
Fiscal year
– financial year
– finansiniai metai;
Flashlight
– torch
– žibintas;
French fries
– chips
– riebaluose keptų
bulvių griežinėliai;
Garbage, trash
– rubbish
– šiukšlės;
Garbage can, trashcan
– dustbin, rubbish bin
– šiukšlių dėžė;
Gas(oline)
– petrol
– benzinas;
Hamburger
– mince
– malta (jautienos)
mėsa;
Highway, freeway
– main road, motorway
– pagrindinis kelias,
greitkelis;
Intersection
– crossroads
– sankryža;
Liquor store
– off–licence
– svaigalų parduotuvė;
Mad
– angry
– piktas;
Mail
– post
– korespondencija;
Mean
– nasty
– bjaurus, šlykštus;
Newsdealer
– newsagent
– laikraščių
pardavėjas;
Oatmeal
– porridge
– avižų košė;
One–way (ticket)
– single ticket
– bilietas į vieną pusć;
Pitcher
– jug
– ąsotis;
Pocketbook, purse,
handbag
– handbag
– rankinukas;
Railroad
– railway
– geležinkelis;
Raise
– rise (in salary)
– (atlyginimo)
padidinimas;
Rest room
– public toilet
– viešasis tualetas;
Sidewalk
– pavement
– šaligatvis;
Smock
– overall
– darbinis chalatas;
Smoked fish
– bloaters
– rūkyta žuvis;
– sportiniai bateliai;
Sneakers (sport shoes)
Stand in line
– queue
– stovėti eilėje;
Stingy
– mean
– šykštus;
Sales clerk
– shop assistant
– pardavėjas,–a;
Subway
– underground
– metro;
Truck
– van, lorry
– sunkvežimis;
Vacation
– holiday(s)
– atostogos;
Vest
– undershirt
– apatiniai baltiniai;
Windshield
– windscreen (on a car)
– priekinis automobilio
stiklas.
6. Slang
Slang is a very informal variety of speech that is not thought suitable for formal situations. Slang is often
limited to one particular group of people, for instance teenagers, soldiers, criminals, etc. Here are a few
examples of slang:
Teenage slang:
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Tennyboppers – paaugliai
To party–hearty – gerai leisti laiką
Rentals – tėvai
Greens – pinigai
A wailing life – puikus gyvenimas
Loadies – jaunuoliai, kurie geria alkoholį ir vartoja narkotikus
A cromagnon – nemalonus žmogus
Bumming – prislėgtas, nuliūdęs
A wombat – keistas žmogus
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A skull–buster – sunkus kursas arba dalykas mokykloje arba universitete
A shwench – naujokė
A sheepskin – gimnazijos arba koledžo diplomas
A grub/dweeb/wonk/weenie/tool – sinonimai sąžiningam moksleiviui arba studentui
A rug–rat – vaikas
Hoity–toity – arogantiškas
A county–mounty – greitkelyje patruliuojantis policininkas
A killer–diller – nuostabus žmogus arba puikus daiktas
Kegged – girtas žmogus
TGIF (Thank God it's Friday) – Ačiū Dievui – penktadienis!
Prison slang ( or so called Criminals' Cant ):
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A canary – informuotojas
To rat – apskųsti arba išduoti ką nors
A skirt or a board – moteris
A dip – kišenvagis
A ganef – smulkus vagišius
A hog – motociklas
To can – pasodinti ką nors į kalėjimą
An air–dance – mirties bausmė pakariant
A banana truck – pamišęs žmogus
Ice – deimantai
Threads – rūbai
A bone–orchard – kapinės
A limo – limuzinas, prabangus automobilis
Army slang:
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A blanket drill – nakties miegas
To bug out – atsitraukti
To bust – pažeminti laipsniu
To fall out – mirti
A moose – mergina
R & R – poilsis
A roach–coach – lauko virtuvė
BOLTOP (Better on Lips than on Paper) – Geriau pabučiuoti lūpas, negu pasiųsti bučinį
popieriuje
ILUVM (I Love You Very Much) – Aš tave labai myliu
ITALY (I Trust and Love You) – Aš tikiu ir myliu
HOLLAND (Here Our Love Lies and Never Dies) – Čia apsigyveno mūsų meilė, kuri niekada
nemirs
SWALK (Sealed with a Loving Kiss) – Patvirtintas meilės bučiniu
Computer men slang:
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BRB (Be Right Back!) – tuoj sugrįžk
Gubbish – niekai, nenaudinga informacija
IAE (In Any Event) and IAC (In Any Case) – bet kuriuo atveju
IOW (In Other Words) – kitaip tariant
Low–res – nemalonus, skurdus
Nybble – keturi kompiuterio atminties informacijos vienetai
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Smiley – apvalus, besišypsantis, geltonas veidas
Doctor slang:
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A boogie – auglys
To bury the hatched – palikti paciente operacijai skirtus instrumentus
To cool – mirti
A couch–doctor – psichiatras
A gas–passer – anestezuotojas
Black slang:
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The nitty–gritty – svarbios detalės
A hootchie cootchie – erotinis šokis
Outasight or wicked – puikus
A rap session – pokalbis arba diskusija
A studsley – apsukrus vyriškis
To yard on – apgaudinėti
A youngblood – jaunas juodaodis
A jungle bunny/kaffir/munt – juodaodis
A banana – mulatė
A black velvet – juodaodė moteris
Pinktoes or white meat – baltaodės
Į pradžią
3.10. CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH
1. A Test
Task 1: Choose the correct answer. Only one answer is correct.
1. A Where do you come from? B Where are you coming from?
C Where come you from? D Where you come from?
2. A I promise I'll do the laundry tomorrow.
B I promise I do the laundry tomorrow.
C I promise I'm doing the laundry tomorrow.
D I promise I doing the laundry tomorrow.
3. He likes to go fishing by ... Dubysa.
A – B a C the D an
4. Your suitcase is easier than ... .
A my B mine C her D our
5. I was angry ... myself for making such a stupid mistake.
A at B for C about D with
6. A Do you know when the train arrives?
B Do you know when does the train arrive?
C Do you know when the train arrive?
D Do you know when does the train arrives?
7. ... French ... known for their gastronomy.
A – ... are B The ... is C The ... are D – ... is
8. A Who did open the window?
B Who opened the window?
C Who did opened the window?
D Who did open window?
9. He will repair our car next month, ... he?
A won't B will C don't D isn't
10. My sister ... to meet you tomorrow.
A will B can C will be able D could
11. They warned their guests ... pickpockets.
A on B about C for D against
12. A He made me believe him again.
B He made me to believe him again.
C He maked me to believe him again.
D He maked me believe him again.
13. This shop sells clothes for ... .
A men and woman C man and women
B men and women D mans and womans
14. A They came to the party of my father.
B They came to the party of my father's.
C They came to my father's party.
D They came to my father party.
15. The government was accused ... incompetence.
A in B of C about D on
16. ... antelope is a wild animal.
A The B A C An D –
17. Nick is not at home now. He ... Paris.
A has been to B has gone to C was to D been to
18. A Did you do the ironing yesterday?
B Did you the ironing yesterday?
C Did you did the ironing yesterday?
D You did the ironing yesterday?
19. I ... in Kaunas now, but it was hard at the beginning.
A used to drive C am used to driving
B get used to drive D used to driving
20. You've ... all the air out of the tyres.
A letted B let C leted D letten
21. They couldn't afford ... a detached house.
A buying B buy C bought D to buy
22. My relatives spent two weeks by ... Lake Plateliai.
A – B the C a D an
23. A Had you a good time during your holidays?
B Have you had good time during your holidays?
C Did you have a good time during your holidays?
D Did you had good time during your holidays?
24. You can ... write ... phone to order a copy.
A neither ... or C either ... or
B either ... nor D neither ... but
25. The team ... playing ... game very well.
A are ... their C is ... their
B is ... its D are ... its
26. A I bought a glass flower Venetian vase.
B I bought a glass Venetian flower vase.
C I bought a flower glass Venetian vase.
D I bought a Venetian glass flower vase.
27. The swarm of bees returned to ... hive.
A its B their C his D her
28. I keep a dictionary ... me when I'm doing crosswords.
A beside B next C besides D near to
29. You should eat ... sugar.
A fewer B less C many D few
30. A His explanation sounds reasonably.
B His explanation sound reasonable.
C His explanation sounds reasonable.
D His explanation sound reasonably.
31. Speak in ... sentences!
A more simple B simpler C simply D more simpler
32. Vilius studies ... seriously ... Lina.
A so ... as B much more ... as C more ... as D as ... as
33. Cactuses grow in ... .
A the dessert B desert C the desert D dessert
34. A She gave to me the book.
B She gave me the book.
C She gave the book me.
D She gave to me book.
35. They ... ... hands.
A rose the B rised the C rose their D raised their
36. English ... here.
A speak B is spoked C speaks D is spoken
37. A She often visits us. C She visits often us.
B She is often visiting us. D She often is visiting us.
38. Wait a minute. The letter ... now.
A is being written B is writing C is written D writes
39. A My father will leave for London on Tuesday.
B My father leaves for London on Tuesday.
C My father leaving for London on Tuesday.
D My father is leaving for London on Tuesday.
40. A Their train arrives at 7 p.m.
B Their train arrive at 7 p. m.
C Their train is arriving at 7 p. m.
D Their train will arrive at 7 p. m.
41. The house ... by next week.
A will be painted
B will painted
C will have been painted
D will paint
42. A If I been in your shoes, I would accept a piece of advice.
B If I were in your shoes, I would accept a piece of advice.
C If I was in your shoes, I accepted a piece of advice.
D If I am in your shoes, I accept a piece of advice.
43. I sleep with the window open ... it is really cold.
A if B in case C if only D unless
44. The plums were ... to dry on rocks.
A laid B lied C lyed D layed
45. Would you mind me ... the car?
A if drive B drive C driving D to drive
46. A You would better stay in bed with your cold.
B You had better stay in bed with your cold.
C You would rather stay in bed with your cold.
D You would prefer stay in bed with your cold.
47. A She suggested he should give up driving fast.
B She suggested he should give up to drive fastly.
C She suggested he should give up driving fastly.
D She suggested he should give up to drive fast.
48. A Let's visit them, shan't we.
B Let's visit them, shall we.
C Let's visit them, don't we.
D Let's visit them, do we.
49. None of the cars ... nice.
A is B aren't C isn't D are
50. A Rose said Nick is coming the day after.
B Rose said Nick was coming tomorrow.
C Rose said Nick was coming the day after.
D Rose said Nick is coming tomorrow.
Task 2: Choose the incorrect word or phrase. There is only one mistake in a sentence.
51. Many[A] people have stopped to smoke[B] because[C] they are afraid that it may be[D]
harmful to their health.
52. I was[A] used to[B] get up[C] early when I was at school[D].
53. Please don't parking[A] in those spaces that have signs reserving[B] them for[C] the
handicapped[D].
54. Too[A] much water makes[B] plants turning[C] brown on the edges of their[D] leaves.
55. Papyrus was used[A] for to make[B] not only paper but also[C] sails, baskets and[D]
clothing.
56. The value of the litas[A] declines[B] as[C] the rate of inflation raises[D].
57. Despite of[A] the pills which[B] are available, many people still[C] have trouble
sleeping[D].
58. The Lietuvos Rytas is[A] interesting[B], informative, and it is[C] easy to read[D].
59. You are[A] busy now, I'll[B] come[C] back latter[D].
60. This vase has the same[A] design, but it is different[B] shaped[C] from[D] that one.
Task 3: In the following list of words, three words rhyme, but one is different. Choose the
one that is different.
Example: A go B sow C mow D do
61. A year B bear C fear D hear
62. A most B lost C cost D frost
63. A good B food C wood D stood
64. A paid B made C played D said
65. A boot B shoot C foot D root
66. A days B says C ways D plays
67. A work B fork C talk D walk
68. A run B done C none D gone
69. A flies B rise C ice D prize
70. A horse B worse C nurse D purse
Test Answers:
1. A 2. A 3. C 4. B 5. D 6. A 7. C 8. B 9. A
10. C 11. D 12. A 13. B 14. C 15. B 16. C 17. B 18. A
19. C 20. B 21. D 22. A 23. C 24. C 25. B 26. D 27. A
28. A 29. B 30. C 31. B 32. D 33. C 34. B 35. D 36. D
37. A 38. A 39. D 40. A 41. C 42. B 43. D 44. A 45. C
46. B 47. A 48. B 49. D 50. C 51. B 52. C 53. A 54. C
55. B 56. D 57. A 58. C 59. D 60. B 61. B 62. A 63. B
63. B 64. D 65. C 66. B 67. A 68. D 69. C 70. A
Į pradžią
© 2000 UAB "Lietuvos rytas"