Download Human Body Systems Graphic Organizer

Measuring Lung Capacity
The amount of air that you move in and out of your lungs while breathing normally is called TIDAL
VOLUME. This amount of air provides enough oxygen for a person who is resting. It is possible to inhale and
exhale more forcefully - the maximum amount of air moved in and out of the lungs is called the VITAL
CAPACITY. In this activity, you will be measuring the vital capacity and the tidal volume of your own lungs,
this actual number can then be compared with a number derived from an equation that measures vital capacity.
In effect, you are measuring an actual number, based on laboratory measurements, to a theoretical number,
based on an equation. If you have any breathing difficulties (asthma or other condition), you should not
participate in this activity, instead only take the data on your lab partner or group.
Materials - Balloons, metric ruler, meter stick, bathroom scale
(optional)
How to Take Measurements with a
Balloon
1. Measuring Tidal Volume -- Stretch a round balloon several
times to stretch it out. Inhale normally and then exhale normally
into the balloon. Do not force your breathing. Pinch the end of
the balloon and measure its diameter. Repeat this so that you
have 3 total measurements and can take the average and record
in the data table.
2. Measuring Vital Capacity - Repeat the procedure, only this
time inhale as much air as you can and exhale forcefully.
Record three measurements in the data table.
3. Convert the diameters to a volume using the graph and record this in your table.
4. Estimated Vital Capacity
Research has shown that the capacity of a
person's lungs is proportional to the
surface area of his or her body. To find
the surface area, you will need to know
your height and weight. There are a couple of different ways to calculate your body surface area
mathematically. Either use the equation below or go to a website that has an automatic calculator. (A google
search on "body surface area calculator will yield many pages that have these calculators)
Once you have calculated your surface area, a second equation will calculate your estimated vital capacity.
Males: SA x 2500
Females SA x 2000
DATA TABLE
Tidal Volume
Balloon
Diameter
Volume
(from graph)
Vital Capacity
Estimated Vital Capacity
Balloon
Volume
Diameter (from graph)
Trial
Height (cm)
1
Mass (kg)
2
3
Surface Area
Vital Capacity
Average
ANALYSIS
1. Why is it important to measure tidal volume and vital capacity three times and then get an average?
2. Compare your data to other members of the class. How can you account for differences?
3. How does your measured vital capacity compare to the vital capacity you estimated using the formula?
Which do you think is more accurate and why?
4. How might an athlete's vital capacity compare to a non-athlete? Explain your reasoning.
APPLICATION
1. Examine the data table of a person who entered into a training program. This person's vital capacity was
measured over a 60 day period. Use the data to construct a graph
DATA
GRAPH
Day of Training
Vital Capacity
0
4800
10
4840
20
4890
30
4930
40
4980
50
5180
60
5260
2. What happened to the person's vital capacity over the course of the training period?
3. What probably caused the change?
4. How might vital capacity be important to a musician?
Lab: Measuring the Monstrous Digestive System
Name____________________________Hr__
Background:
You feel hungry because your brain receives signals that your cells need energy. But eating is only the
beginning of the story. You body mush change a meal into substances that you can use. Your digestive
system is a group of organs that work together to digest food so that it can be used by the body.
Look at the picture to the right of your digestive system. This
system contains many parts & many of the parts are folded up
inside your body. If you were to take your digestive system out of
your body and lay it out flat, it would surprise you how long it is.
In this lab you will make models of your own digestive system by
measuring & cutting yarn to represent lengths of different parts of
the system, and knotting the pieces of yarn together to from one
long string.
Materials: metersticks, yarn (blue, red, green, yellow, purple),
scissors, digestive system diagram
Procedure:
__1) Digestion begins in the mouth, so measure and cut a piece of
red yarn from the front to the back of the mouth. (You can do this
by stretching the yarn from the front of your lips to the back of your jaw along your cheek).
__2) Record this length in centimeters (cm) in the data table on the next page.
__3) The esophagus is a tube that connects the mouth and stomach. Measure & cut a piece of blue yarn
the length of the esophagus. (Measure from your mouth to just below your rib cage). Tie the blue
esophagus to the red mouth.
__4) Record the length of this blue string in centimeters (cm) in the data table on the next page.
__5) In the stomach, gastric juices break down solid food into a liquid. Find the length of the stomach
by spreading the fingers of your hand and measuring the span from the thumb to the little finger.
Measure and cut a piece of green yearn to match this length. Tie the green stomach to the blue
esophagus.
__6) Record the length of this green string in centimeters (cm) in the data table on the next page.
__7) The small intestine is the longest part of the digestive system. It is folded up inside of you so it
fits. Food is further digested and absorbed here. Measure your heights and multiply it by four. Use
yellow yarn to represent the length of the small intestine. Tie the yellow small intestine to the green
stomach.
__8) Record the length of this yellow string in centimeters (cm) in the data table on the next page.
__9) Last is the large intestine. It is much wider than the small intestine but much shorter. It is about as
tall as you are. Undigested material form the small intestine moves to the large intestine before it leaves
your body. Use purple yarn to represent the length of your large intestine. Then ties the purple large
intesting to the yellow small intestine.
__10) Record the length of this purple string in centimeters (cm) in the data table on the next page.
__11) Label each segment of your digestive system model with masking tape like your teacher showed
you.
DIGESTIVE ORGAN
LENGTH (CM)
Mouth
Esophagus
Stomach
Small Intestine
Large Intestine
Follow-up Questions:
1) What is the TOTAL LENGTH of your digestive system? ______________________ cm
2) Why do you think your digestive system is so long?
__________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
______
_________________________________________________________________________________
______
2) Read back through the procedure. What are the jobs of the following digestive organs?
DIGESTIVE ORGAN
Mouth
Esophagus
Stomach
Small Intestine
Large Intestine
FUNTION (JOB)
Observing Muscle Fatigue
Your muscles need Glycogen (muscle sugar) in order to function. When the glycogen is broken down into
energy for the muscles a waste product called lactic acid is produced. A buildup of lactic acid decreases
the muscles’ ability to contract and Muscle Fatigue sets in.
Objective: To explore muscular contraction and the resulting fatigue that follows and to pinpoint the cause
of that fatigue
After reading the directions, make a hypothesis about what will happen with regards to muscle fatigue and
muscle contraction.
Hypothesis:
Directions:
1. Hold the ends of the clothespin between the thumb and index finger of your right hand. Practice
opening the clothespin by squeezing the ends together and releasing the pressure to allow the pin to
close.
2. Using the second hand of the clock to keep time, count and record the number of times you can
open and close the clothespin in one minute. Be sure to open and close the pin COMPLETELY
between each repetition.
3. Without taking a break between trials, repeat the one-minute exercises until you have recorded a
total of TEN trials. Record below
Trial #
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Right
Left
4. Repeat steps 1-3 using your left hand. DO NOT ALTERNATE. You must do all of the right hand,
then all of the left hand.
5. Return the clothespin to your right hand and repeat the one-minute exercise. Record the number
of times you were able to open and close the clothespin ___________.
Questions:
1. How did the number of successful openings change for either hand as you completed more and more
trials? Why do you think this happened?
2. Looking at the overall number of openings and at the endurance of your finger muscles, can you see
the difference between your dominant hand and the opposite hand? Why would this factor make a
difference in your results?
3. Describe the results from step 5 after the “rest period” of testing your left hand. Why were you
able to complete more openings than in trial 10 of step 3?
4. Now, represent your data graphically using the graph paper provided. What kind of graph will you
use? Remember, we are trying to show a trend.
Conclusion: Write a detailed conclusion of what is happening in this lab with regards to muscle fatigue.
Do this:
Hold a book in each hand. Raise one arm straight out parallel to the ground and the other arm down at your
side.
Compare the feeling in each arm. Write your observations below.
Do this:
Sit against the wall with your knees bent at a 900 angle. Hold this position for as long as it takes to feel
muscle fatigue.
(If it’s been more than 3 minutes you are not doing it right). Write your observations below.
Do this:
1. Hold a popsicle stick in front of you , parallel to the table top.
2. Place a bent paper clip on the stick.
3. Raise the stick until the legs of the paper clip just touch he table.
4. The top of the paper clip should rest on the stick.
5. Hold the stick as steady as you can for about 30 seconds and observe.
6. Grip the stick tighter and repeat step 5.
Write your observations below.
Nervous System Lab
Introduction: The human nervous system is composed of the brain and spinal cord (Central Nervous System,
CNS) and the nerves which branch out from the CNS, the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS). Sensory neurons of
the PNS carry information to the CNS. Signals from the brain are carried to motor neurons (PNS), which carry
out responses by muscles.
In this lab, you will be comparing the rate at which sensory neurons, working through the brain, can elicit
responses via motor neurons. We will also be mapping out the density of sensory neurons on the skin.
Purpose: To identify differences in the nervous system based on reaction response time and nerve density.
Part 1: Reaction time
Part A – Arm and shoulder. Each group will be equipped with a meter stick. Select a group member, and use
the same person for ALL of the following tests in Part 1.
Have the group member stand upright, with their arms extended straight out in front of the body, palms of the
hands facing each other. The palms should be 10 cm apart. Place the meter stick exactly in the middle of the
palms, with the 50 cm mark at the TOP of the index finger. The meter stick should be oriented so that “0” end
is down and the “100” end is up.
Once you are organized, another group member will hold the top of the stick, and then let go. The meter stick’s fall
should be stopped by bringing the arms together to stock the fall of the meter stick. Record the distance that the
stick fell by looking at the measurement lines on the meter stick that align with the index fingers as the palms hold
the stick.
Final position cm - 50.0 cm = Distance traveled
Repeat this process three more times, recording your data in the table you have on your lab.
Part B – Thumb and Index finger. Have the group member stand upright, with their right arm extended
straight out in front of the body, with the thumb and forefinger separated by 10 cm. As before, place the
meter stick at the 50 cm mark between the finger and thumb, with the 50 cm mark aligned with the top of the
index finger. Release the stick, and record the distance that the meter stick falls before the student catches
it.
Repeat this process three more times, recording your data in the table.
Fall Distance in centimeters (cm)
Trial #1
Trial #2
Trial #3
Trial #4
Average
Part A –
Arms and
shoulder
Part B –
Thumb and
forefinger
Nervous System Tests
Cerebellum: Function = balance and coordination
1) Knee Flexion.
a. Stand straight; hold onto table with one hand.
b. Slowly bend knee as far as possible, so foot lifts up behind you; hold this position.
c. Now, use one fingertip to hold onto the table.
d. Next, no hands.
e. Finally, with your eyes closed if you are steady. Why do you think closing your eyes makes this more difficult?
2) Hip Extension
a. Stand 12-18 inches from table
b. Bend at hips; hold onto table
c. Slowly lift one leg backwards (like an ice skater); hold this position
d. Now hold onto the table with one fingertip, then no hands, Finally with eyes closed!
Parietal Lobe (part of the cerebral cortex) Function = Sensory processes (touch); attention and language
1) Cutaneous (Skin) Sensations
a. Have your partner rest comfortably with his/her eyes closed and both forearms resting on the table. One arm
should have the hand up, the other with hand facing down. Hair or clothing from the back of the neck should be
pinned back so the surface of the neck is exposed. Do not allow your partner to open his/her eyes at any time
during this part of the lab!
b. Perform the tests with the caliper in a random order. Measure the distance between the points, when your
partner indicates he/she can feel only one stimulus instead of two.
Location Two-Point Distance (mm)
Mid-Foream
Tip of Pointer Finger
Tip of Little Finger
Palm of Hand
Back of Hand
Back of Neck
Cheeks
Forehead
Which areas of the skin are most sensitive to the two-point discrimination test? _______________________
Which areas of the skin are least sensitive to the test? ________________________________________
Temporal Lobe (part of the cerebral cortex) Function = auditory perception and speech
1) Tongue Twisters
* Six sick slick slim sycamore saplings. * Sam’s shop stocks short spotted socks.
* A box of biscuits, a batch of mixed biscuits. * Lesser leather never weathered wetter weather better.
* Red lorry, yellow lorry, red lorry, yellow lorry. * Fat frogs flying past fast.
· Six thick thistle sticks. Six thick thistles stick. * We surely shall see the sun shine soon.
· Toy boat. Toy boat. Toy boat. * Ed had edited it.
· What time does the wristwatch strap shop shut? * Are our oars oak?
Which tongue twister was the most difficult? ___________________ Why? _________________________
Occipital lobe: Function = Vision
Two eyes are better than one, especially when it comes to depth perception. Depth perception is the ability to
judge objects that are nearer or farther than others. To demonstrate the difference of using one eye versus
two to judge depth complete the following:
1. Depth Perception
a) Hold the ends of a pencil/pen in each hand, hold them vertically or horizontally facing each other
at arms length from your body.
b) Now, close one eye and try to touch the ends of the pencils together
c) Now try with two eyes: it should be much easier
It is easier with two eyes because each eye looks at the image from a different angle.
2. Why do you need two eyes?
a) With your arms fully extended, hold a plastic drinking straw in one hand and a pipe cleaner in the other.
b. With both eyes open, try to insert the pipe cleaner into the straw.
c. Now close your right eye. Try to insert the pipe cleaner into the straw. Repeat step c, but this time close your
left eye instead.
How does closing one eye affect the ability to judge distances? ____________________________________
Frontal Lobe: Function = Decision making, problem solving and planning
If you were asked to design a test to stimulate the frontal lobe, what would you do?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
Brain Stem: Function = Vital center (respiration, regulation of heart rhythms…)
Why didn’t we test this in lab?
__________________________________________________________________________
Testing your Cranial Nerves
You have 12 pairs of Cranial Nerves.
Olfactory Nerve (1): This nerve carries smell messages from the nose to the brain.
Test: With your eyes closed, smell the items on the table one at a time. Can you identify the item? Was the odor
strong, pleasant, or neutral? Which nostril did you use to identify the item?
Sample Identity of item Strong Pleasant Neutral Nostril used
A
B
C
D
E
Which specific lobe of the brain does the olfactory nerve (1) send information to? ______________________
Optic Nerve (II): This nerve (or brain tract) carries sight messages from the retina of the eye to the brain.
Test: Is this picture moving?
What specific lobe(s) does optic nerve (II) send information to? __________________________________
Oculomotor Nerve (III), Trochlear Nerve (IV), Abducens Nerve (VI): These nerves carry movement messages
from the brain to the muscles controlling eyeball movement.
Test: Have your partner follow your finger with his/her eyes.
If you were to damage any of these three nerves, what activities would you have difficulty performing?
___________________________________________________________________________
Trigeminal Nerve (V): This nerve carries sensory information from the face to the brain, and movement
(motor) messages from the brain to the muscles in the face.
Test: To test the sensory part of this nerve, lightly touch various parts of your face with your finger. To test
the motor part of this nerve, close your jaws as if you were biting down on a piece of gum.
Which lobe(s) does trigeminal nerve (V) send information to? ______________________________________
Facial Nerve (VII): This nerve carries messages from the brain to the muscles controlling facial expression.
Test: To test the motor part of this nerve, make a funny face. To test the sensory part of this nerve, shake
some sugar into your hand and taste it with the tip of your tongue.
If you were to damage you facial nerve (VII), what activities would you have a difficult time doing?
_____________________________________________________________________
Vestibulocochlear Nerve (VIII): Carries sound and movement (vestibular) messages from the inner
ear to the brain.
Test: Shake each of the film canisters on the table. Can you identify the item? Which ear did you use to hear?
A
B
C
D
Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IX) and Vagus Nerve (X): The Glossopharyngeal nerve carries messages to and from
the tongue and pharynx. The vagus nerve also carries movement messages from the brain to the muscles of the
pharynx and larynx. In addition, the vagus nerve carries messages that regulate heart rate, breathing, digestive
activity, and blood pressure both to and from the brain.
Clinical Application: Inflammation of the glossopharyngeal nerve results in loss of sour and bitter tastes, and
impaired swallowing. A complete destruction of the vagus nerve is fatal.
Test: Swallow.
Which lobe(s) do these nerves send information to? _______________________________
Spinal Accessory Nerve (XI): This nerve carries movement messages from the brain and brain stem to
movement muscles in the larynx, pharynx, shoulders, head and neck.
Test: Move your head from side to side. Shrug your shoulders.
Hypoglossal Nerve (XII): This nerve carries movement messages from the brain to the tongue.
Test: Stick out your tongue and move it side to side.
If you were to damage the hypoglossal nerve (XII), what activities would you have a difficult time doing?
Digestion Lab
In this lab we are going to trace the journey of a carrot through the digestion system.
Introduction:
There are three steps in digestion:
 mechanical digestion
 chemical digestion
 absorption.
1. Mechanical digestion is the first step where food is mechanically broken into smaller
pieces by the teeth and strong jaws. Next, saliva mixes into the chewed food to make a
soft and pasty solution that will be easier to swallow. This solution is the beginning of
chemical digestion.
2. Chemical digestion is the process in which different enzymes and chemicals are
introduced in order for the digestive system to break-down sugars, proteins and to
emulsify (change into smaller drops) fats.
3. The last stage is absorption. This is when the small intestine actually passes the
nutrients through its lining into the bloodstream.
The wall of the small intestine is special. On its inner wall are small
fingerlike structures called "villi", which increase the surface area by their
long thin shape. Each villus (singular for villi) is formed of a single layer of
cells. Some substances, like water, can pass easily through the thin one cell
wall, others must first attach to a specialized carrier molecule that can pull
them through. Inside the each villus is a thin , one-cell thick capillary.
Capillaries are the smallest of our blood vessels, some are so small that they
only let the blood cells travel in single file! This is where the nutrients from
our breakfast, lunch, or dinner enter the bloodstream. From here, the blood
in the capillaries carries these nutrients back to the heart in veins in order to
get pumped to the lungs for more oxygen.
Procedure:
1.
2.
Each member of the group needs to read the introduction section
Use the following word bank to label the diagram below
Esophagus
gall bladder
large intestine
liver
mouth
pancreas
rectum
small intestine
stomach
3. Describe the order your group proposes the carrot will
take as it travels through the labeled parts in the box below.
4. Now you will do a physical simulation of the carrot’s journey.
Safety Precautions
Avoid chemical contact with eyes and skin, gloves and safety lenses should be worn when handling alcohol.
Simmering alcohol may cause nasal irritation, avoid inhaling direct fumes.
5. Step 1 of digestion is mechanical digestion. To simulate “chewing” use the plastic knife to chop the
carrot into small pieces (about the size of a grain of rice or smaller)
6. Step 2 starts the chemical digestion of the food by enzymes in the saliva. It is then swallowed and
carried down to the stomach. To simulate this you will place your chopped carrot into the small
beaker at your table.
7. When the food is in the stomach, acid and enzymes break the food into smaller molecules. To
simulate this, add alcohol into the beaker until it just covers the top of the carrot.
8. Fill approximately ¼ of the large beaker with tap water.
9. Carefully place the small beaker containing the carrot pieces and
alcohol into the large beaker. (Caution: do not let the water
overflow into the carrot /alcohol beaker- if it looks like it is
going to do this as you are lowering the small beaker, remove it,
pour out a little water into the sink then try again)
10. Place the large beaker on the hot plate and turn on the heat.
11. The alcohol will begin to boil before the water. When it does, lower the heat and allow the alcohol
to simmer for 15 minutes, without letting the water come to a boil.
12. Carefully observe any changes in the carrot/alcohol mixture, as you will be writing a summary
of your observations at the end of the lab.
13. After simmering, carefully remove from heat and place one tip of the coffee filter strip into the
mixture, touching the top of the carrots.
14. What do you think the coffee filter represents? ____________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
15. Describe in detail your observations, and discuss your group’s results in the space below.
Integumentary system
Integumentary System
The largest organ system of our body and consists of skin, hair, nails, oil and
Function : sweat glands as well as nerves. All these organs collectively play a variety of
roles in maintaining the normal body functions. It covers and provides
protection from damage.
Interactions with 2 other systems:
One of the first defense mechanisms
for the immune system
Your nervous system depends on
neurons embedded in your skin
to sense the outside world.
Major parts/organs:
Epidermis
Dermis
Hair
Melanin
Sweat
glands
Oil glands
This is the outermost layer of the skin that contains four separate layers
of epithelial tissue. The outer most layer is the stratum corneum that is
about 2 to 30 cells thick.
The dermis lies immediately after the epidermis. The dermis consists of
its own blood supply and thus contains many complex structures. The
sweat glands are present in this layer that collect waters and waste
products from the blood stream. This waste is excreted from the pores in
the epidermis along with the water in form of sweat. The hair roots are
also present in this layer that help in the growth of hair. When the hair
reaches outside the epidermis, the cells are dead.
The hair extends to the surface from the hair roots or hair bulbs present
in the dermis. The functions of the hair include protection and sensation
to touch. Hair is made up of dead, keratinized cells that are bound
together with the extracellular proteins. Each hair is divided into hair shaft
that is the superficial layer and the root that is in the dermis. Hair follicle
is the structure that surrounds the hair root. The oil glands present
around the hair follicles help keep the hair and the surrounding skin
moist. It also acts as a protective organ involved in temperature
regulation.
It is a substance that gives the skin and hair its natural color.
Sweat glands have an opening through the skin pores, and they help in
excretion of water and electrolytes. Eccrine sweat glands are found all
over the body whereas apocrine sweat glands are present in armpits and
groin. Eccrine glands are involved in the cooling mechanism of
thermoregulation whereas, apocrine glands are involved in the secretion
of chemicals and pheromones.
A variety of skin structures that secrete oily or greasy substances of
various functions. In mammals, sebaceous glands provide a grease that
serves as a protectant and lubricant for hair and skin.
Skeletal system
Ball and Socket
Gliding
Joints
Pivot
Hinge
Skeletal System
Protection and support are the two big reasons that organisms have skeletal
systems. Your Skeletal system is all of the bones in the body and the tissues such
as tendons, ligaments and cartilage that connect them. Your teeth are also
Function : considered part of your skeletal system but they are not counted as bones. Your
teeth are made of enamel and dentin. Enamel is the strongest substance in your
body.
Interactions with 2 other systems:
skeleton works very closely with the
muscular system to help you move
The calcified bones of your skeleton
also work with the circulatory system.
Marrow inside of your bones helps
produce the cells inside of your blood.
Major parts/organs:
Bones make up the framework of our bodies. We call this framework the
skeleton. Bones are living, growing and changing parts of our bodies.
Babies' skeletons are made up from more than 300 parts, but by the time
we become adults we only have 206 bones!
Ligaments are similar to tendons, but they connect bone to bone and
Ligaments
help to stabilize joints. They are composed mostly of long, stringy
collagen fibers creating short bands of tough fibrous connective tissue.
A tendon connects muscle to bone. These tough, yet flexible, bands of
Tendons
fibrous tissue attach to the skeletal muscles that move your bones.
Axial
The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body. It consists of the
skeleton
skull, the vertebral column, the ribs and the sternum or breastbone.
The appendicular skeleton consists of the girdles and the skeleton of the
Appendicular limbs. The upper (anterior) limbs are attached to the pectoral (shoulder)
skeleton
girdle and the lower (posterior) limbs are attached to the pelvic (hip)
girdle.
The site or place where 2 or more bones of the skeleton are attached to
Joints
each other is called a joint.
Bone marrow is the soft spongy tissue that lies within the hollow interior
Marrow
of long bones. In adults, marrow in large bones produces new blood
cells. Bone marrow forms around 4% of total body weight.
Bones
Muscular System
Muscular System
The muscular system is responsible for the movement of the human body.
Attached to the bones of the skeletal system are about 700 named muscles
Function :
that make up roughly half of a person’s body weight.
Interactions with 2 other systems:
The neurons of the nervous system are
system and lymph system.
You have smooth muscles that line
your digestive system and help move
food through your intestines. Smooth
muscle also surrounds your circulatory
connected to most of the cells in your
muscular system.
Major parts/organs:
Smooth
Cardiac
Skeletal
Involuntary
muscle
Much of our internal organs is made up of smooth
muscles. The smooth muscles are controlled by the
nervous system and hormones.
The cardiac muscles is the muscle of the heart
itself. The cardiac muscle is the tissue that makes
up the wall of the heart called the mydocardium.
The cardiac muscle is striated and contracts
through the sliding filament method. However it is
different from other types of muscles because it
forms branching fibers. Unlike the skeletal muscles,
the cardiac muscle is attached together instead of
been attach to a bone.
The skeletal muscle makes up about 40 % of an
adults body weight. It has stripe-like markings, or
striations. The skeletal muscle is composed of long
muscle fibers. The nervous system controls the
contraction of the muscle. Many of the skeletal
muscle contractions are automatic.
We cannot consciously control the smooth muscle
that is why they are often called involuntary
muscles.
Examples:
urinary bladder,
gallbladder,
arteries, and veins
digestive tract
heart
Arm muscles
urinary bladder,
gallbladder,
arteries, and veins
digestive tract,
heart
Moving your arms
However we still can control the action of the
Voluntary
skeletal muscle. And it is because of this reason
muscle
that the skeletal muscle is also called voluntary
muscle.
Muscle fiber is the term used to collectively describe the many long,
Muscle fiber multi-nucelated muscle cells, or myofibers, that make up skeletal muscle.
Digestive System
Digestive System
Function :
Muscle fiber is the term used to collectively describe the many long, multi-nucelated
muscle cells, or myofibers, that make up skeletal muscle.
Interactions with 2 other systems:
Your digestive and excretory systems work with the nervous system in both conscious
and unconscious ways. While digestion goes on without your thoughts, eating, peeing,
and pooping are under your control.
Major parts/organs:
Mouth
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestines
Large intestines
Rectum
Pancreas
Gallbladder
Liver
Salivary glands
Digestion begins in the mouth itself. The food is broken down into smaller pieces using the teeth.
Chewing makes the job easier for the digestive juices in the stomach. Spit or saliva formed in the
mouth breaks down the food using enzyme ptyalin. The tongue then rolls the masticated food into
a ball, known as bolus and pushes it to the posterior end of the mouth into the pharynx.
The esophagus is a ten-inch long passage that is situated between the trachea and the spine and
opens into the upper end of the stomach. The esophagus function is to pass food, saliva and
liquids to the stomach, which is received from the pharynx. With the help of several sphincters,
lining the walls of the esophagus, contractions are formed which allows the passage of food to the
stomach.
The stomach is a sac-like structure and happens to be the most dilated part of the digestive
system. The primary function of the stomach is to collect and break down food. The stomach
contains a digestive juice called gastric juice, which digests food like meat, eggs and milk.
However, gastric juice does not digest starch, sugars and fats. It also contains hydrochloric acid
and pepsin enzymes. Some food remains in the stomach for the next 2-5 hours, while some of the
liquids and other smaller particles get emptied fast. This partly digested food called chyme is then
passed from the stomach to the small intestine.
Stretching from the stomach to the large intestine is a 20 feet long small intestine, which is coiled
in the central portion of the abdominal cavity. It is in this small intestine where the most extensive
part of digestion occurs. Small intestine's function is digestion and absorption of ingested food.
The supportive organ; pancreas secrete digestive enzymes which help in digestion of food.
Carbohydrates, lipids and proteins are broken down and digested. Moreover, the salts secreted
by the liver and gallbladder work in coordination with pancreatic lipase and digest lipids.
The large intestine is a five-feet long tube, which is subdivided into different parts such as the
cecum, colon and rectum. The function of the large intestine function is to absorb water and
mineral salts from the digested food received from the small intestine. Moreover, the friendly
bacteria present in the colon produces vitamin K, which is needed for the body's blood clotting
process. The function of the rectum is to receive waste material or feces from where the sigmoid
colon is stored, until it is excreted out of the body via the anus.
The anus or anal opening is the last part of the digestive system. Through it, the feces are
eliminated from the body finally.
The pancreas is a gland organ in the digestive and endocrine system of vertebrates. It is both an
endocrine gland producing several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, and
somatostatin, as well as an exocrine gland, secreting pancreatic juice containing digestive
enzymes that pass to the small intestine. These enzymes help in the further breakdown of the
carbohydrates, protein, and fat in the chyme.
The gallbladder squeezes stored bile into the small intestine through a series of tubes called
ducts. Bile helps digest fats, but the gallbladder itself is not essential. Removing the gallbladder in
an otherwise healthy individual typically causes no observable problems with health or digestion.
The liver's main job is to filter the blood coming from the digestive tract, before passing it to the
rest of the body. The liver also detoxifies chemicals and metabolizes drugs. As it does so, the liver
secretes bile that ends up back in the intestines. The liver also makes proteins important for blood
clotting and other functions.
Salivary glands produce the saliva used to moisten your mouth, initiate digestion, and help protect
your teeth from decay.
Endocrine System
Endocrine System
The endocrine system is one of the body’s main systems for communicating,
controlling and coordinating the body’s work. responses to surroundings, stress and
Function :
injuryThe endocrine system accomplishes these tasks via a network of glands and
organs that produce, store, and secrete certain types of hormones.
Interactions with 2 other systems:
It works with the nervous system, reproductive system, kidneys, gut, liver, pancreas and fat
to help maintain and control the following: body energy levels, reproduction, growth and
development, internal balance of body systems, called homeostasis.
Major parts/organs:
A gland is a group of cells that produces and secretes, or gives off,
Gland
chemicals. A gland selects and removes materials from the blood,
processes them, and secretes the finished chemical product for use
somewhere in the body.
As the body's chemical messengers, hormones transfer information and
Hormones
instructions from one set of cells to another. Many different hormones
move through the bloodstream, but each type of hormone is designed
to affect only certain cells.
The pituitary (pronounced: puh-TOO-uh-ter-ee) gland, located at the
Pituitary
base of the brain just beneath the hypothalamus, is considered the
most important part of the endocrine system. It's often called the
"master gland" because it makes hormones that control several other
endocrine glands.
The hypothalamus (pronounced: hi-po-THA-luh-mus), a collection of
Hypothalamus specialized cells that is located in the lower central part of the brain, is
the main link between the endocrine and nervous systems. Nerve cells
in the hypothalamus control the pituitary gland by producing chemicals
that either stimulate or suppress hormone secretions from the pituitary.
Pituitary
The thyroid gland produces three hormones: Thyroxine (T4),
Thyroid
Triiodothyronine (T3), and Calcitonin. Thyroid hormone affects body
growth, metabolic rates, and the development of bones and skeletal
muscle.
The adrenal glands are on top of each kidney. Each gland has a cortex
Adrenal
(outer region) and a medulla (inner region). The cortex secretes
Glands
glucocorticoids such as cortisol, mineralocorticoids, and small amounts
of androgens and estrogens.
The ovary is the site of estrogen and progesterone synthesis. Estrogen
Ovaries/
is required to form the ovum (egg) during oogenesis and prepares the
uterus for implanting a fertilized egg. The testes produce the hormone
Testes
testosterone.
A target cell responds to a hormone because it bears receptors for the
Target cell
hormone.In other words, a particular cell is a target cell for a hormone if
and receptors it contains functional receptors for that hormone, and cells which do not
have such a receptor cannot be influenced directly by that hormone.
Nervous System
Nervous System
The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and cells that carry messages to
and from the brain and spinal cord to various parts of the body. The nervous system
Function :
includes both the Central nervous system and Peripheral nervous system.
Interactions with 2 other systems:
There is obvious interaction between your muscles and your nervous system. That interaction helps
you move around and interact with your environment. There are many hidden interactions going on
within your body. Your endocrine system works closely with your brain and central nervous system
to control the creation of specific hormones and enzymes. Your digestive and excretory systems
work with the nervous system in both conscious and unconscious ways. While digestion goes on
without your thoughts, eating, peeing, and pooping are under your control.
Major parts/organs:
The smallest worker in the nervous system is the neuron. For each of the
Neurons
chain of impulses there is one preganglionic neuron, or one before the
cell body or ganglion, that is like a central controlling body for numerous
neurons going out peripherally.
The cell body has several highly branched, thick extensions that appear
Dendrites
like cables and are called dendrites. The exception is a sensory neuron
that has a single, long dendrite instead of many dendrites. Motor
neurons have multiple thick dendrites. The dendrite's function is to carry
a nerve impulse into the cell body.
An axon is a long, thin process that carries impulses away from the cell
Axons
body to another neuron or tissue. There is usually only one axon per
neuron.
Response The functions of nerve tissue are to receive stimuli, transmit stimuli to
to a
nervous centers, and to initiate response.
stimulus
Central
The Central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord.
Nervous
System
Peripheral The Peripheral nervous system is made up of the Somatic and the
Nervous
Autonomic nervous systems. The somatic nervous system consists of
System
peripheral nerve fibers that pick up sensory information or sensations
from the peripheral or distant organs (those away from the brain like
limbs) and carry them to the central nervous system. The autonomic
nervous system controls the nerves of the inner organs of the body on
which humans have no conscious control.
Respiratory System
Respiratory System
Your respiratory system is all about exchanging gases with the environment.
Function :
Interactions with 2 other systems:
You have two lungs and the exchange of gases between the circulatory and respiratory
systems happens in the lungs. your respiratory system also interacts with your digestive
system. Your mouth and pharynx are both used to swallow and to breathe. There is a
branching point where you will find the epiglottis that directs food to your stomach and
air to your lungs. Your respiratory system even connects with the nervous system in
your nose where you smell.
Major parts/organs:
The nose consists of two nasal cavity separated by a cartilaginous nasal
Nasal cavity septum which is covered with a mucus membrane (Nasal Septum). Air
enters through the nostrils, which are openings lined by an thin skin with
coarse hairs and sebaceous glands.
Trachea/
The trachea (TRAY-kee-uh} is sometimes called the windpipe. The
epiglottis
trachea filters the air we breathe and branches into the bronchi.
Bronchus
The trachea divides into a right and left main bronchus.
As the airway passages make their way out to the lung tissue, the
Bronchiole passages become smaller and are referred to as bronchioles.
The main organ of the respiratory system is lungs. Lungs are the site in
Lungs
body where oxygen is taken into and carbon dioxide is expelled out. The
red blood cells present in the blood picks up the oxygen in the lungs and
carry and distribute the oxygen to all body cells that need it. The red
blood cells donate the oxygen to the cells and picks up the carbon
dioxide produced by the cells.
The alveoli are the final branchings of the respiratory tree and act as the
Alveoli
primary gas exchange units of the lung. The gas-blood barrier between
the alveolar space and the pulmonary capillaries is extremely thin,
allowing for rapid gas exchange. To reach the blood, oxygen must diffuse
through the alveolar epithelium, a thin interstitial space, and the capillary
endothelium; CO2 follows the reverse course to reach the alveoli.
Breathing starts with a dome-shaped muscle at the bottom of the lungs
Diaphragm called the diaphragm (DY-uh-fram). When you breathe in, the diaphragm
contracts. When it contracts it flattens out and pulls downward. This
movement enlarges the space that the lungs are in. This larger space
pulls air into the lungs. When you breathe out, the diaphragm expands
reducing the amount of space for the lungs and forcing air out. The
diaphragm is the main muscle used in breathing.
Circulatory System
Circulatory System
Function :
The circulatory system carries chemicals to all points in your body. The fluids also
carry waste products and dissolved gases for your cells.
Interactions with 2 other systems:
When you breathe, the circulatory system carries oxygen to your cells and carries
dissolved carbon dioxide back to the lungs, therefore working with the respiratory
system. The circulatory system and its fluids are super important to your digestive
system that has absorbed nutrients from your food. Hormones created by your
endocrine system are sent through the body by the circulatory system.
Major parts/organs:
The Heart is an amazing organ. The heart beats about 3 BILLION times
Heart
during an average lifetime. It is a muscle about the size of your fist. The
heart is located in the center of your chest slightly to the left. It's job is to
pump your blood and keep the blood moving throughout your body.
Arteries are blood vessels that carry oxygen rich blood AWAY from the
Arteries
heart.
Veins
Veins carry blood back toward your heart.
Capillaries are tiny blood vessels as thin or thinner than the hairs on your
Capillaries head. Capillaries connect arteries to veins. Food substances (nutrients),
oxygen and wastes pass in and out of your blood through the capillary
walls.
Blood
Red Blood Cells are responsible for carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide.
-RBCs
Red Blood Cells pick up oxygen in the lungs and transport it to all the
body cells. After delivering the oxygen to the cells it gathers up the
carbon dioxide(a waste gas produced as our cells are working) and
transports carbon dioxide back to the lungs where it is removed from the
body when we exhale(breath out). There are about 5,000,000 Red Blood
Cells in ONE drop of blood.
White Blood Cells help the body fight off germs. White Blood Cells
-WBCs
attack and destroy germs when they enter the body. When you have an
infection your body will produce more White Blood Cells to help fight an
infection. Sometimes our White Blood Cells need a little help and the
Doctor will prescribe an antibiotic to help our White Blood Cells fight a
large scale infection.
Plasma is the liquid part of the blood. Approximately half of your blood is
-plasma
made of plasma. The plasma carries the blood cells and other
components throughout the body. Plasma is made in the liver.
Platelets are blood cells that help stop bleeding. When we cut ourselves
-platelets
we have broken a blood vessel and the blood leaks out. In order to plug
up the holes where the blood is leaking from the platelets start to stick to
the opening of the damaged blood vessels.
Humans have two-circuit circulatory systems: one circuit is for pulmonary
Path of
circulation (circulation to the lungs; pulmo = lungs), and the other circuit is
blood
for systemic circulation (the rest of the body). As each atrium and
through the ventricle contract, blood is pumped into certain major blood vessels, and
body
from there, continues through the circulatory system.
Urinary System
Urinary
The urinary system, also known as the excretory system, is concerned
with the removal of water-soluble waste products from the body in the
Function :
form of urine. The various components or organs of the urinary system
are associated with the production, storage, and then expulsion of urine
from the body. At the same time, the system also takes part in several
vital functions of the body.
Read more at Buzzle: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/urinary-systemInteractions with 2 other systems::
functions.html
It has an interdependent relationship with the endocrine system, the circulatory system, the
musculoskeletal system and the nervous system. The adrenal glands, also a part of the
endocrine system, secrete a chemical substance that allows the kidneys to effectively
regulate fluids in the body. This process is directly related to blood pressure and the
circulatory system. The urinary system is also closely related to the circulatory system by
virtue of the processes of cleansing the blood of waste, removing excess fluids and generally
keeping other fluids in balance.
Read more: What Systems Does the Urinary System Work With? | eHow.com
http://www.ehow.com/how-does_4571111_systems-does-urinary-systemMajor
parts/organs:
work.html#ixzz2JvTgnNR0
The primary function of the kidneys is the removal of metabolic wastes
formed within the cells of the body. We know metabolism occurs within
Kidneys
every cell of our body, and nitrogenous wastes, such as urea, uric acid,
and ammonia, are generated as a result of this process. These toxic
compounds are dissolved in the bloodstream, and are filtered out by the
kidneys.
The ureters are narrow tubes that arise from the kidneys and descend to
Ureter
the urinary bladder. Each ureter is attached to the renal pelvis of the
respective kidney. The function of the ureters is to transport urine from
the renal pelvis of the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
Urinary
The urinary bladder is a triangular, hollow organ that is located in the
bladder
lower abdominal region. The function of the urinary bladder is to store
urine until it is expelled from the body.
The urethra is the tube through which urine is expelled from the body.
Urethra
It is 8 inches long in males and 2 inches long in females.
Adults pass about a quart and a half of urine each day, depending on the
fluids and foods consumed. The volume of urine formed at night is about
Urine
half that formed in the daytime. Normal urine is sterile. It contains fluids,
salts and waste products, but it is free of bacteria, viruses and fungi. The
tissues of the bladder are isolated from urine and toxic substances by a
coating that discourages bacteria from attaching and growing on the
bladder wall.
Immune/Lymphatic System
Immune/Lymphatic System
The lymph system is designed for transportation in a way similar to the circulatory
system, however it acts like the clean-up crew for your body. The intercellular fluid
Function :
slowly begins to accumulate and must be returned to the cells and the blood stream. The
lymph system gathers those fluids and returns them to your blood.
Interactions with 2 other systems:
Collection of fluids begins at the capillaries of the circulatory system and then the fluid
directed through a series of vessels that become the thoracic duct. That duct is connected to
the largest vein in your body, the superior vena cava, and returns the fluid to your heart and
circulatory system. The digestive system is critical to proper immune function. The GALT,
including the tonsils and appendix, are locations where the body deciphers which foreign
substances are food and which are pathogens, helping to create normal immune function.
Read
more: http://www.livestrong.com/article/73427-human-body-systems-workMajor
parts/organs:
immune/#ixzz2JvZkdY4h
Innate, or nonspecific, immunity is the defense system with which you
Innate immunity
were born. It protects you against all antigens. Innate immunity
involves barriers that keep harmful materials from entering your body.
These barriers form the first line of defense in the immune response.
These are examples of innate immunities: skin, secretions,
inflammation, and white blood cells.
Acquired
Acquired immunity is immunity that develops with exposure to various
immunity
antigens. Your immune system builds a defense that is specific to that
antigen.
Antibody
The immune system includes certain types of white blood cells. It also
immunity
includes chemicals and proteins in the blood, such as antibodies,
-antigens
complement proteins, and interferon. Some of these directly attack
-antibodies
foreign substances in the body, and others work together to help the
-T cells and B
immune system cells. Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell.
cells
There are B and T type lymphocytes. B cells produce antibodies.
Antibodies attach to a specific antigen and make it easier for the
immune cells to destroy the antigen. T cells attack antigens directly
and help control the immune response. They also release chemicals,
known as cytokines, which control the entire immune response.
Passive immunity is due to antibodies that are produced in a body
Passive immunity other than your own. Infants have passive immunity because they are
born with antibodies that are transferred through the placenta from
their mother. These antibodies disappear between 6 and 12 months of
age. Passive immunization may also be due to injection of antiserum,
which contains antibodies that are formed by another person or animal.
It provides immediate protection against an antigen, but does not
provide long-lasting protection. Immune serum globulin (given for
hepatitis exposure) and tetanus antitoxin are examples of passive
immunization.
Active immunity is any immunity that the body creates for itself in
Active immunity
response to the presence of specific harmful substances, which usually
are bacteria or viruses. This can take a number of different forms. In
some instances, this is a natural process, but it can also be artificially
triggered.