Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
CHAPTER 1 MICROBES PLAY IMPORTANT ROLES IN IN THE FOODS & MEDICINES WE INTAKE. * THEY HAVE A MAJOR IMPACT ON OUR HEALTH & ENVIRONMENT FEWER THAN 1% CAUSE DISEASE IN AN IMMUNE SUPPRESSED STATE - PATHOGENS 1962, U.S. SURGEON GENERAL STEWART DECLARED VICTORY OVER INFECTIOUS DISEASE THRU DECOMPOSITION OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE, DEAD ORGANISMS, WASTE MATERIAL OF LIVING ORGANISMS NITROGEN IS MADE AVAILABLE TO PLANTS 1/2 OF CHILDREN UNDER AGE 10 DIED OF INFECTIOUS DISEASE PRIOR TO THIS CENTURY GRAZING ANIMALS CAN DIGEST GRASS BECAUSE OF MICROBES ANTIBIOTIC SYNTHESIS - BENEFIT OF MICROORGANISMS DERIVED FROM ONE ORGANISM TO KILL OR INHIBIT GROWTH OF OTHER MICROORGANISMS INTERFERON & GROWTH HORMONES - PRODUCED BY GENETICALLY ALTERED MICROBES NEW MICROBES HAVE BEEN PRODUCED TO DEGRADE OIL SPILLS, REMOVE MATERIALS FROM SOIL, & TO DIGEST EXPLOSIVES BIOCHEMISTS USE OF MICROBES: STUDY OF METABOLIC PATHWAYS SEQUENCE OF CHEM. Rxs IN LIVING ORGANISMS INVESTIGATE THE PROCESS OF GENE TRANSMISSION RESEARCHERS MAIN ATTRACTIONS TO MICROBES: 1. SIMPLE STRUCTURE, EASIER TO STUDY 2. COST EFFECTIVE FOR RELIABLE STATISTICS IN LAB 3. FAST REPRODUCTION USEFUL IN STUDIES OF GENTIC TRANSFER OF INFO. ERADICATED DISEASES: MEASLES POLIO CHICKEN POX GERMAN MEASLES SMALL POX MICROBIOLOGY (SCOPE) 1. VARIETY OF TYPES OF MICROBES 2. KINDS OF WORK MICROBIOLOGISTS DO CHAPTER 1 THE MICROBES BEE BREAD (A POLLEN DERIVED NUTRIENT EATEN BY WORKER BEES) CONTAINS 188 KINDS OF FUNGI & 29 KINDS OF BACTERIA SIZES RANGE FROM SMALL VIRUSES = 20nm TO LARGE PROTOZOANS = 5mm DIFFERENCE OF 250,000x BACTERIA - UNICELLULAR > RODS, SPHERES, SPIRALS NO NUCLEAS & LACK ORGANELLES MANY ALGAE ARE UNICELLULAR EXCEPTION > MARINE ALGAE ALGAE ARE IMPORTANT SOURCE OF FOOD FOR MANY ORGANISMS ONLY 1 SPECIES HAS BEEN FOUND TO CAUSE DISEASE IN HUMANS FUNGI - UNICELLULAR > YEASTS & SOME MOLDS EXCEPTION > MUSHROOM IS MULTICELLULAR & MACROSCOPIC CELL NUCLEUS & ORGANELLES ALL ABSORB NUTRIENTS READYMADE FROM ENVIRONMENT AGENTS OF DISEASE & SOURCES OF ANTIBIOTICS VIRUSES COMPOSED OF A NUCLEI & PROTEINS CAN BE CRYSTALLIZED & STORED BUT RETAIN ABILITY TO INVADE CELLS ONLY REPLICATE W/IN CELLS OF HOST PROTOZOA - UNICELLULAR W/ ORGANELLES CAUSE DISEASE IN HUMANS (IMMOBILE) MOST OTHERS ARE MOBILE HELMITHS - WORMS ANTHROPODS - INSECTS CHAPTER 1 MICROBES cont... GENUS & SPECIES: ESCHERICHIA COLI - FOUND IN THE HUMAN GUT (BACTERIA) GIARIDIA INTESINALIS - CAUSES SEVERE DIARRHEA (PROTOZOAN) HERPESVIRUSES - NAMED FOR GROUP IN WHICH THEY BELONG POLIOVIRUSES - NAMED FOR THE DISEASE THEY CAUSE DIFFERENT FIELDS OF MICROBIOLOGY MICROBIAL TAXONOMY - CLASSIFY MICROORGANISMS BACTERIOLOGY PHYCOLOGY - ALGAE MYCOLOGY - FUNGI PROTOZOLOGY PARASITOLOGY VIROLOGY BASED ON FUNCTIONS: MICROBIAL METABOLISM - CHEM Rxs W/IN MICROBES MICROBIAL GENETICS - TRANSMISSION & ACTION OF GENETIC INFO. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY - RELATIONSHIPS W/ EACH OTHER & THEIR ENVIRONMENT HEALTH RELATED FIELDS: IMMUNOLOGY EPIDEMIOLOGY - FREQUENCY & DISTRIBUTION OF DISEASES ETIOLOGY - CAUSE OF DISEASE INFECTION CONTROL - CONTROL SPREAD & DEVELOPMENT OF CHEM. SUBSTANCES TO TREAT DISEASES CHAPTER 1 DIFFERENT FIELDS cont... APPLICATIONS OF KOWLEDGE: FOOD & BEVERAGE TECHNOLOGY - PRTECT US FROM DISEASED ORGANISMS IN FOOD... ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY INDUSTRIAL MICROBIOLOGY - MANUFACTURING OF FERMENTED FOODS... PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY GENETIC ENGINEERING - SYNTHESIZE PRODUCTS USEFUL TO HUMANS BASIC RESEARH = TAXONOMY, PROCESSES, & RELATION TO DISEASE (IMMUNOLOGY...) APPLIED MICRO - DISEASE RELATED, ENVIRONMENTAL, INDUSTRIAL (INFECTION CONTROL) BIREMEDIATION - ORGANISMS DEVELOPED TO CLEAN UP ENVIRONMENT HISTORICAL ROOTS HIPPOCRATES - MEDICAL ETHICS THUCYDIDES - PLAGUE SURIVORS DEVELOPMENT OF RESISTANCE VARRO - TINY ORGANISM ENTER NOSE & MOUTH TO CAUSE DISEASE BUBONIC PLAGUE (BLACK DEATH) MEDITERRANEAN - 542 A.D. EUROPE - 1347 JEWISH POP. NOT HIT AS HARD DUE TO SANITATION & HERBAL REMEDIES ROBERT HOOKE: LEEWENHOEK: CORK CELLS MICROSCOPIC LENSES OF QUALITY (UP TO 300x MAG.) CALLED MICROBES - ANIMALCULES AFTER DEATH MICROBIOLOGY DIDN’T ADVANCE FOR OVER A CENTURY LINNAEUS: ORG. DEVELOPED GEN. CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM FOR ALL LIVING SCHWANN & SCHLEIDEN: CELL THEORY (DOEN’T APPLY TO VIRSUES) CHAPTER 1 GERM THEORY OF DISEASE GERMS CAN INVADE OTHER ORGANISMS & CAUSE DISEASE SPONTANEOUS GENERATION - BELIEF THAT MICROORGANISMS WERE DERIVED FROM NON-LIVING THINGS, IT TOOK SCIENCE YRS. TO DISPELL THIS BELIEF EARLY STUDIES AS LATE AS THE 19TH CENTURY PEOPLE THOUGHT THAT ROTTING MEAT GAVE RISE TO WORMS REDI: MEAT EXPERIMENT OF COVERING MEAT TO PROVE WORMS DIDN’T APPEAR ON SPALLANZANI: MEAT BOILED BROTH CONTAINING ORGANIC MATTER SEALED THE & SHOWED NO WORMS DEVELOPED SPONTANEOUSLY PASTEUR & TYNDALL - DEFEATED THEORY OF SPONTANEOUS GENERATION PASTEUR: USING SWAN NECK FLASKS: BOILED INFUSIONS & HEATED NECK & DREW THEM OUT TO OPEN CURVED TUBES OF THE NECK AIR COULD GET IN AIRBORNE MICROBES WOULD BECOME TRAPPED IN TUBES BEFORE REACHING THE INFUSION HE ALSO FILTERD AIR W/ COTTON & PLACED THE COTTON IN STERILE SOLUTION TO SHOW THE MICROBES HAD BEEN FILTERED OUT OF AIR TYNDALL: BOILED & SEALED INFUSIONS IN AIRTIGHT BOX PASTEUR’S CONTRIBUTIONS cont... DISCOVERED THAT CAREFULLY SELECTED YEASTS MADE GOOD WINE OTHER MICROBES THAT COMPETED FOR SUGAR IN WINE TURNED IT SOUR THIS DEVELOPED PASTEURIZATION - HEAT WINE TO 56 DEGREES CELCIUS IN ABSENCE OF O2 FOR 30 MIN. IDENTIFIED 3 DIFFERENT MICROORGANISMS WHILE STUDYING SILKWORMS, EACH CAUSED A DIFFERENT DISEASE - HELPED TO PROVE GERM THEORY OF DISEASE CONTRIBUTED TO DEVELOPMENT OF VACCINES RABIES VACCINE: MADE OF DRIED SPINAL CORD OF RABBITS INFECTED W/ THE DISEASE - 1ST GIVEN TO A DOG BITE VICTIM PASTEUR INSTITUTE DIRECTOR IN 1894 CHAPTER 1 ROBERT KOCH’S CONTRIBUTIONS SPENT MOST OF TIME STUDYING BACTERIA ANTHRAX - HIGHLY CONTAGIOUS AND DEADLY DISEASE IN CATTLE CELLS KOCH RECOGNIZED HIGHLY ACTIVE DIVIDING CELLS & DORMANT (SPORES) HE DEVELOPED TECHNIQUES FOR STUDYING THEM IN VITRO DEVELOPED GROWTH OF BACTERIA IN PURE CULTURES ANGELA HESS - SUGGESTED FOR KOCH TO ADD AGAR FOR BACT. MEDIA KOCH’S POSTULATES (TO ASSOC. PARTICULAR ORANISM w/ A SPECIFIC DISEASE) 1. SPECIFIC CAUSATIVE AGENT MUST BE FOUND IN EVERY CASE OF DISEASE 2. THE DISEASED ORGANIS MUST BE ISOLATED IN PURE CULTURE 3. INNOCULATION INTO A HEALTHY, SUSCEPTIBLE ANIMAL MUST PRODUCE THE SAME DISEASE 4. THE DISEASED ORGANISM MUST BE RECOVERED FROM THE INOCULATED ANIMAL * THESE ALL HELPED IN DEVELOPING THE GERM THEORY IDENTIFIED THE BACTERIA CAUSING TUBERCULOSIS (NOBEL - PRIZE IN 1905) TUBERCULIN PROVED TO BE FATAL WHEN ADMINISTERED RESEARCHED MALARIA, TYPHOID FEVER, SLEEPING SICKNESS... WORK TOWARD CONTROLLING INFECTIONS SEMMELWEIS - CONNECTION BETWEEN AUTOPSIES & PUERPERAL (CHILDBED) FEVER DOCTORS WERE GOING FROM AUTOPSIES DIRECTLY TO EXAMINING WOMEN IN LABOR W/OUT WASHING HANDS LISTER - THE FIRST ANTISEPTIC TECHNIQUES WERE PROVEN TO REDUCE SURGICAL INFECTIONS INTRODUCED CARBOLIC ACID FATHER OF ANTISEPTIC SURGERY HIS WORK FOLLOWED UP SEMMELWEIS’S CHAPTER 1 IMMUNOLOGY THE CHINESE TOOK DRIED SMALLPOX SCABS & TURNED THEM INTO POWDER & SNIFFED THEM IN VIA THE NOSE TO BUILD IMMUNITY TO SMALL POX VARIOLATION - TECHNIUE USED BY ASLEY MONTAGE TO IMMUNIZE PEOPLE AGAINST SMALL POX IN EUROPE (USE A THREAD SOAKED IN SP BLISTER & DRAWN THRU AN INCISION IN ARM) EDWARD JENNER - COWPOX INOCULATIONS VACCINIA - GAVE RISE TO THE NAME OF THE VIRUS FOR COWPOX & AND THE WORD VACCINE MAY HAVE RECEIVED THE FIRST GRANTS FOR MEDICAL RESEARCH PASTEUR - CONTRIBUTED W/ WORK ON VACCINES FOR RABIES & CHLOREA REALIZED THAT ORGANISMS COULD LOSE ABILITY TO REPRODUCE BUT COULD STILL BUILD IMMUNTIY - THIS FINDING W/ CHLOREA IN CHICKENS LED TO THE RABIES VACCINATION METCHNIKOFF - DISCOVERD PHAGOCYTES WHICH WAS FIRST STEP TO UNDERSTANDING IMMUNOLOGY DEVELOPED SEVERAL VACCINES ALTHOUGH SOME SUBJECTS RECEIVED GONORRHEA & SYPHILIS FROM HIS VACCINES DURING TESTING VIROLOGY CHARLES CHAMBERLIN - DEVELOPED PORCELAIN FILTER FOR BACTERIA BEIRJERINCK - DISCOVERED THAT SMALLER FILTRATES MADE IT THROUGH THE FILTER & CAUSED INFECTION - VIRUSES - SPECIFIC PATHOGENIC MOLECULES INCORPORATED INTO CELLS - ALSO TERMED HOST CELLS WENDELL STANLEY - CRYSTALLIZED TOBACCO MOSAIC VIRUS PROPERTIES OF LIVING AGENTS ALSO ACT AS CHEMICAL SUBSTANCE CRYSTALS WERE PROTEIN & RNA - NUCLEIC ACID WAS SHOWN TO BE IMPORTANT TO THE INFECTIVITY OF THE VIRUS ALFRED HERSHEY & MARTHA CHASE - DEMONSTRATD DNA IN VIRUS WATSON & CRICK - DETERMINED STRUCTURE OF DNA CHAPTER 1 CHEMOTHERAPY DIOSCORIDES - GEEK PHYS. WHO COMPILED THE MATERIA MEDICA IN THE FIRST CENTURY A.D. SUSBTANCES DERIVED FROM PLANTS STILL USED TODAY: DIGITALIS CURARA EPHEDRINE MORPHINE ALSO MANY HERBAL MEDICATIONS PARACELSUS - USED METALLIC CHANNEL ELEMENTS TO TREAT DISEASE ANTIMONY - FOR GENERAL INFECTIONS MERCURY - FOR SYPHILIS SYDENHAM - CINCHONA TREEE BARK FOR MALARIA CONTAINS QUININE - USED TO TREAT FEVERS IN SPAIN & SOUTH AMERICA 19TH CENTURY - MORPHINE EXTRACTED FROM OPIUM POPPY EHRLICH - FIRST SERIOUS RESEARCHER IN CHEMOTHERAPY DISCOVERED CERTAIN DYES STAINED MICROBES & NOT ANIMAL CELLS DYES OR OTHER CHEMICALS MIGHT BE USED TO KILL MICROBES LED TO SEARCH FOR THE “MAGIC BULLET” KILL MICROBES W/OUT KILLING SURROUNDING TISSUES STARTED FIRST CHEMOTHERAPY INSTITUTE EHRLICH’S INSTITUTE: COMPOUND 418 (ARSENOPHENYLGLYCINE) - FOR SLEEP SICKNESS COMPOUND 606 (SALVARSAN) - FOR SYPHILIS FLEMING - DISCOVERED LYSOZYME - FOUND IN TEARS, SWEAT, & SALIVA COULD KILL BACTERIA, FIRST BODY SECRETION FOUND TO HAVE CHEMO. PROPERTIES 1917 - DEVELOPMENT OF ANTIBIOTICS - CERTAIN BACTERIA STOP GROWTH OF OTHER BACTERIA FLEMING - DISCOVERD PENICILLIN THRU WORK W/ STAPHYLOCOCCUS FURTHER DEVELOPED DURING WWII CHAPTER 1 1935 - SULFA DRUGS WERE BEING DEVELOPED PRONTOSIL RUBRUM - USED FOR TREATMENT OF STREPTOCOCCAL INFECTIONS REDDISH DYE CONTAINING A SULFONAMIDE CHEM. GROUP DOMAGK - MAJOR ROLE IN DEVELOPING SULFANILAMIDES PRONTOSIL SAVED THE LIFE OF HIS DAUGHTER WAKSMAN - COINED THE TERM ANTIBIOTIC ISOLATED STREPTOMYCIN FOR TREATMENT OF TUBERCULOSIS ALONG W/ OTHERS ISOLATED: NEOMYCIN CHLORAMPHENICOL CHLORTETRACYCLINE BROTZU - CEPHALSPORIN FROM SEAWATER GENETICS & MOLECULAR BIOLOGY MODERN GENETICS BEGAN W/ REDISCOVERY OF MENDEL’S WORK 1874 - 1917 > THE GOLDEN AGE OF MICROBIOLOGY FREDERICK GRIFFITH - BACTERAI COULD CHANGE THEIR OWN NATURE & BECOME DISEASE CAUSING BACTERIA COULD INHERIT TRAITS FROM DEAD BACTERIA AVERY, McCARTY, & MACLEOD - CHANGE BY BACTERIA WAS PRODUCED BY THE DNA THEN WATSON & CRICK DISCOVERD THE STRUCTURE OF DNA TATUM & BEADLE - USED NEUROSPORA TO SHOW HOW GENES CONTROLLED METABOLISM BARABARA McCLINTOCK - GENES COULD MOVE FROM ONE LOCATION TO ANOTHER ON A CHROMOSOME - CAUSED REVISON OF GENE THEORIES RECENT DISCOVERIES SHOW GENES BEING SHUFFLED & SPLICED TO MAKE ANTIBODIES EVEN AGAINST THREATS NOT YET ENCOUNTERED TOMORROW’S HISTORY 1990 - FIRST GENE THERAPY PATIENT, GIVEN NEW GENE FOR IMMUNE SYSTEM DEFECT CHAPTER 1 HUMANE GENOME PROJECT COST OF 3 BILLION DOLLARS OVER 15 YEARS (‘TIL YEAR 2005) IDENTIFYING LOCATION & CHEMICAL SEQUENCE OF ALL GENES IN HUMAN GENOME ESTIMATED TO CONSIST OF OVER 3 BILLION BASE PAIRS THEY HAVE COMPLETELY SEQUENCED: HAEMOPHILUS INFLUENZA - CAUSE OF EAR INFECTIONS HELICOBACTER PYLORI - CAUSE OF STOMACH ULCERS BORRELIA BURGDORFERI - CAUSES LYME DISEASE CRAIG VENTOR - DEVELOPED MORE EFFICIENT TECHNIQUES & DOUBLED THE KNOWN 2000 GENES OF HUMANS IN A FEW MONTHS TABLE 1.3 EARLY MICROBIOLOGISTS & ACHIEVEMENTS YEAR NAME ACHIEVEMENTS * CAUSATIVE AGENT = (CA) * NOBEL PRIZE = (NP) 1874 1883 BILLROTH KOCH DISCOVERED ROUND BACTERIA IN CHAINS VIBRIO CHOLERAE (CA) OF CHOLERA 1876 BACILLUS ANTHACIS (CA) OF 1878 DIFFERENTIATION OF ANTHRAX STAPHYLOCOCCI 1882 MYCOBACTERIUM 1905 (NP) - TUBERCULOSIS TUBERCULOSIS (CA) OF TB 1879 HANSEN MYCOBACTERIUM LEPRAE (CA) OF LEPROSY 1880 NEISSER NEISSERIA GONORRHEOEAE (CA) OF GONNORHEA 1880 EBERTH SALMONELLA TYPHI (CA) OF TYPHOID FEVER STERNBERG w/ PASTEUR 1880 ISOLATION & CULTURING OF PNEUMONIA COCCI FROM SALIVA 1883 KLEBS DIPTHERIA CORYNEBACTERIUM DIPTHERIA & TOXIN (CA) OF 1885 ESCHERICH ESCHERICHIA COLI IS NATURAL INHABITANT OF GUT 1887 PETRI INVENTION OF CULTURE DISC 1888 YERSIN w/ ROUX DISCOVERY OF ACTION OF DIPTHERIA TOXIN 1890 VON BEHRING IMMUNIZATION OF ANIMALS w/ DIPTHERIA TOXIN w/ KITASATO 1901 1892 VIRUS (NP) - SERUM THERAPY AGAINST DIPTHERIA IVANOVSKI DISCOVERY OF FILTERABLITIY OF TOBACCO MOSAIC 1897 VAN ERMENGEM CLOSTRIDIUM BOTULINUM (CA) OF BOTULISM 1897 EHRLICH ANTIBODY FORMATION FORMULATION OF SIDE-CHAIN THEORY OF 1908 w/ METCHNIKOFF (NP) - IMMUNITY 1898 SHIGA SHIGELLA DYSENTERIAE (CA) OF DYSENTERY TABLE 1.3 cont... YEAR NAME ACHIEVEMENT (CA) = CAUSATIVE AGENT (NP) = NOBEL PRIZE 1899 BEIJERINCK MOSAIC VIRUS 1880 ROSS w/ LAVERNE DISCOVERY OF INTRACELLULAR PROD. OF TOBACCO LIFE CYCLE OF MALARIAL PARASITES IN RBS OF INFECTED HUMANS 1902 1939 (NP) - MALARIA DOMAGK FLEMING w/ CHAIN & FOLEY (NP) - ANTIBACTERIAL EFFECT OF PRONTOSIL (NP) - PENICILLIN 1945 1951 THEILER (NP) - VACCINE FOR YELLOW FEVER 1952 WAKSMAN 1962 WATSON & CRICK 1993 MULLIS AMPLIFY (NP) - STREPTOMYCIN (NP) - STRUCTURE OF DNA (NP) - POLYMERASE CHAIN Rx METHOD TO (COPY) DNA 1908 METCHNIKOFF (NP) - IMMUNITY w/ EHRLICH 1939 DUBOS DISCOVERED TYROTHRYCIN, ANTIBIOTIC PROD. BY THE SOIL ENDERS??? WELLER & ROBBINS??? TABLE 9.2 THE 5 KINGDOM SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION p. 228 MONERA PROTISTA FUNGI PLANTAE ANAMALIA prokaryota CELL TYPE EUKARYOTIC CELL MULTI- PROKARYOTIC EUKARYOTIC UNI-, UNI-, ORGANIZATION OCCASIONALLY GROUPED CELL WALL PRESENT EUKARYOTIC UNI- or MULTI MULTI- OCCASIONALLY MULTI- PRESENT IN ABSENT MOST NUTRITION ABSORPTIVE, EUKARYOTIC ABSORPTION, INGESTION, PRESENT/ PRESENT ABSCENT INGESTION or ABSORPTION PHOTO- & ABSORTION, PHOTOSYN. OCCAS. IN CHEMOSYN- SOME PHOTO- THETIC SYNTHETIC SOME PARASITES BY ABSORPTION REPRODUCTION ASEXUAL, PRIM. SEXUAL MOSTLY by binary fission BOTH SEXUAL BOTH ASEXUAL, OCCAS. BOTH & ASEXUAL, often involving a complex life cycle MONERA ANIMALIA PROTISTA FUNGI PLANTAE CHLAMYDIA HELMINTHES PROTISTA FUNGI ALGAE MICROPLASMIC RICKETTSIAE BACTERIA - CONVENTIONAL TABLE 9.3 BACTERIA, ARCHAEA, & EUKARYA COMPARED p. 235 BACTERIA CELL TYPE PRO- EUKARYA PRO- TYP. SIZE um CELL WALL MADE OF ARCHAEA .5 - 4 um EUKARYOTIC .5 - 4 um USUALLY PRESENT PRESENT, LACK CONTAIN PEPTIDO- PEPTIDOGLYCAN >5 ABSENT oR OTHER MATERIALS GLYCAN LIPIDS IN MEMBRANES FA, LINKED BY ESTERS FA, LINKED BY ESTERS BY ETHERS ISOPRENES, LINKED PROTEIN SYNTHESIS 1ST AA = METHIONIE IMPAIRED ANTIBIOTICS 1ST AA = METHIONINE IMPAIRED BY ANTI - BIOTICS 1ST AA = FORMYL- METHIONIE NOT IMPAIRED BY MOST NOT ANTIBIOTICS GENETIC MATERIAL COMPLEX NUCLEUS SMALL CIRCULAR CHROMOSOME & SMALL CIRCULAR CHROMOSOME & MORE THAN 1 LARGE PLASMIDS, HISTONES PLASMIDS, HISTONE LINEAR CHROMOSOME, ABSENT LIKE PROTEINS PRESENT HISTONES PRESENT RNA POLYMERASE LOCOMOTION FLAGELLA, SIMPLE SIMPLE FLAGELLA, GAS VESICLES CILIA, LEGS, FINS, WINGS HABITAT RANGE OF WIDE RANGE OF ENVIRONMENTS ENVIRONMENTS COMPLEX SIMPLE FLAGELLA, COMPLEX COMPLEX GAS VESICLES USUALLY ONLY EXTREME ENVIRON. WIDE TYPICAL ORGANISMS ALGAE, PROTOZOA, ENTERIC BACTERIA, CYANOBACTERIA METHANE PRODUCING BACTERIA, HALOBACT, FUNGI, PLANTS, EXTREME ANIMALS THERMOPHILES TABLE 10.6 COMPARISON OF VIRUSES, VIROIDS, AND PRIONS p. 280 VIRUS NUCLEIC ACID VIROID (+) (ssDNA,dsDNA ssRNA, or dsRNA) (+) (ssRNA) PRION (-) PRESENCE OF CASPID (+) (-) (-) OR ENVELOPE PRESENCE OF (+) (-) (+) PROTEIN NEED FOR HELP VIRUSES (+ / -) NEEDED BY SOME OF THE SMALLER VIRUSES (PARVOVIRUSES) EFFECTED BY HEAT (+) (-) (-) (+) (+) ( -) PLANTS MAMMALS & PROTEIN DENAT. AGENTS EFFECTED BY RADIATION OF ENZYMES THAT DIGEST DNA or RNA HOST BACTERIA, ANIMALS, or PLANTS * ACELLULAR - DON’T HAVE ALL THE CRITERIA OF A LIVING ORGANISM PRION > VIROID > VIRUS INCREASED COMPLEXITY > CLASS NOTES TEST #1 MICRON = um = 1 MILLIONTH OF A METER = 10 to the -6 NANOMETER = 1 BILLIONTH OF A METER = 10 to the -9 ANGSTROM = 10 BILLIONTH OF A METER = 10 to the -10 VIROIDS - O.T. DIENER DIFFER FROM VIRUSES IN 4 WAYS 1. EACH VIROID CONSISTS OF A SINGLE SPECIFIC RNA 2. EXIST IN CELLS AS PARICLES OF RNA W/OUT CAPSIDS 3. NOT APPARENT IN INFECTED TISSUES W/OUT SPECIAL TECHNIQUES 4. RNA OF VIROIDS ARE OF LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT CAUSE SEVERAL PLANT DISEASES: POTATO SPINDLE TUBER DISEASE CRYSANTHEMUM STUNT CUCUMBER PALE FRUIT DISEASE GROWING OF SAME PLANTS IN CLOSE ASSOC. & MACHINE HARVESTING MAY HAVE CAUSED PROLIFERATION OF VIROIDS PRIONS DISEASES: CREUTZFELCDT-JAKOB DISEASE KURU SCRAPIE - IN SHEEP PRIONS MAY BE A PROTEIN - IT IS NOT DESTROYED BY AGENTS THAT DIGEST NUCLEIC ACIDS POSSIBLE MEANS OF REPLICATION: 1. DIRECT PAIRING OF AMINO ACIDS 2. REVERSE TRANSLATION TO RNA 3. SYNTHESIS OF A PROTEIN DIRECTED BY A SMALL NUCLEIC ACID PROTECTED BY THE PROTEIN OR ACTIVATION OF A GENE CLASS NOTES cont... VIRUSES - 2 ESSNTIAL COMPONENTS CAPSID ENVELOP E NUCLEIC ACID 2 STRANDED DNA 2 STRANDED RNA 1 STRANDED DNA 1 STRANDED RNA CAPSID - PROTEIN COAT, PROTECTS NUCLEIC ACID & DETERMINES SHAPE OF VIRUS ENVELOPE - BILAYER MEMBRANE VIRION - A COMPLETE VIRUS PARTICLE W/ ENVELOPE IF IT HAS ONE ALL VIRUSES CONTAIN A GENOME NAKED VIRUS - LACKS AN ENVELOPE GLYCOPROTEINS IN ENVELOPES, KNOWN AS SPIKES: CAN ATTACH VIRUS TO RECEPTOR CELLS OF HOST FUSION OF VIRAL & CELL MEMBRANES MATRIX PROTEINS IN ENVELOPE: CONTRIBUTE TO STRUCTURE OF ENVELOPE SOMETIMES ASSIST IN ASSEMBLY OF COMPONENTS INTO NEW VIRUSES HOST RANGE OF VIRUS & SPECIFICITY OF VIRUS... PROKARYOTIC BACTERIA CHLAMYDIA - AKA: ENERGY PARASITES LACK ABILTY TO SYNTHESIZE ATP, DEPENDENT ON HOST FOR ATP HYPOTROPHIC - UNABLE TO GROW ON MEDIA AKA: OBLIGATE INTRACELLULAR PARASITES #1 STD - CHLAMYDIA TRACHOMATIS #1 CAUSE OF BLINDNESS - SAME AS ABOVE (AMERICAN INDIANS) (TRACHOMA) ERYTHROMYCIN & TETRACYCLINE - USED AT BIRTH FOR EYE TEST CLASS NOTES cont... MICROPLASMIAE - FOUND IN UROGENITAL TRACT - STD HAS STEROLS IN MEMBRANES NO CELL WALL - NO GENES FOR CELL WALL SYNTHESIS PLEOMORPHIS - NO DEFINITE SHAPE SPHAEROPLASTS - ARTIFICIALLY REMOVE CELL WALL CAUSES PNEUMONIA RICKETTSIAE ALMOST ALL ARE HYPOTROPHIC ROCY MOUNTAIN SPOTTED FEVER TYPHUS FEVER - CAUSED DEFEAT & RETREAT OF NAPOLEAN FROM RUSSIA TRANSMITTED BY INSECT BODY LICE (REDIULUS CAP.) P. CORPOIS LYME DISEASE BACTERIA - CONVENTIONAL YERSIAN PESTIS - LARGEST KILLER STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE - BIGGEST KILLER TODAY SALMONELLA FOOD POISONING E. COLIN VINBRIO CHLOREA - DEHYDRATER BENEFICIAL ROLE OF BACTERIA STREPTOMYCIN - SOURCE OF LIFE SAVING DRUGS TETRACYCLINE ERYTHROMYCIN PSEUDOMNA - OIL EATING BACTERIA CLASS NOTES cont... FUNGI - MULTICELLULAR MYCOLOGY - STUDY OF MYCOSIS - FUNGAL DISEASES CANDIDA - GI TRACT - MOUTH UROGENITAL TRACT SKIN INFECTIONS: DERMATOPHYTOSIS * MORE PEOPLE DIE FROM MYCOSIS THAN CANCER - CHEMOTHERAPY HISTOPLASMOSIS & COCCIDIOMOSIS - NAT’L BOARD FUNGI RECLE ELEMENTS PENICIILIN & CEPHALOSPONIN FROM FUNGI EDIBLE MUSHROOMS - * AMALNITA IS DEADLY MUSHROOM ALGAE PHOTOSYNTHETIC AGAR AGAR - PORPHYRA CHORELLA - EDIBLE ALGAE HELMINTHES - WORMS TAPEWORM ASCARIS BRUGIA & WUCHERERIA: FILIRIASIS BLOCK LYMPHATIC SYSTEM, LARGE COLLECTION OF BODY FLUIDS THEY PARACYTISE THE HUMAN MECHANISM RIVER’S POSTULATES FOR NONCULTURABLE ORGANISMS NOT AS NARROW AS KOCH’S POSTULATES EXCEPTIONS TO KOCH’S POSTULATES TREPONEMA PALLIDUM - SYPHILIS - UNCULTURABLE, NO EXPERIMENTAL HOST MICROBACTERIUM LEPRAE - LEPROSY - UNCULTURABLE TRUE STATEMENTS FROM TEST #1 PONIES VIRUSES HAVE PROTEIN & NUCLEIC ACID PRION HAS PROTEIN ONLY VIROID HAS NUCLEIC ACID ONLY CHLAMYDIA CAUSES BLINDENESS FRITZE ZIRNIKE DEVELOPED PHASE CONTRAST MICROSCOPE SCRAPIE IS A NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASE IN SHEEP CAUSED BY PRIONS TREPONA PALLIDUM & MICROBACTERIUM LEPRAE DON’T MEET KOCH’S POSTULATES VIRUSES ARE LEAST APPLICABLE TO KOCH’S POSTULATES CONTAGIUM VIVUM FLUIDUM REFERS TO VIRUSES RICKETTSIA IS TRANSMITTED THRU INSECTS PRIONS ARE PROTENACEOUS REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE DISCOVERED BY TEMIN & BALTIMORE VIROIDS ARE (CA) OF PLANT DISEASES CHLAMYDIA MOST COMMON CAUSE OF STD ROCKY MOUNTAIN SPOTTED FEVER IS A RICKETTSIA DISEASE TOXOPLASMA CAN GO ACROSS PLACENTA ONE OF LEADING CAUSES OF MICROBIAL DEATH - PNEUMONIA (STREPTOCOCAL) VIRTUALLY ERADICATED DISEASES - CHICKEN POX, SMALL POX, MEASLES, POLIO GENETIC ENGINEERING USES ESCHERICHIA MOST EXTENSIVELY EHRLICH RESPONSIBLE FOR FIRST DRUGS AGAINST SYPHYLIS MICROBIOLOGY DOESN’T INCLUDE THE STUDY OF ANGIOSPERMS REFRACTIVE INDEX OF OIL IMMERSION CLOSE TO THAT OF GLASS SLIDE STAIN COLORS MATERIAL IN LIGHT MICROSCOPY CENTRIFUGE USED IN SEPARATION OF SUBCELLULAR SUBSTANCE TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY WL = 0.05 ANGSTROM RED BACTERIA AFTER GRAM STAINING IS GRAM NEG. PONY MATERIAL TEST #1 cont... ORGANISM STAINED W. CARBOL FUCHSIN & IT APPEARS ON A BRIGHT RED BACTERIA IT IS ACID FAST BACTERIA ENDERS, WEELER & ROBBINS INVOLVED IN CULTIVATION OF POLIO VIRUS PROKARYOTE NUCLEUS IS NON-MEMBRANE BOUND HELA CELLS ARE OF HUMAN ORIGIN TOXOPLASMA IS A PROTOZOAN & CAN CROSS PLACENTA KOCH DEVELOPED POSTULATES WHILE WORKING W/ BACILLUS ANTHRACIS MELACHITE GREEN IS PRIMARY STAINED USED IN SPORE STAINING METALLIC LENSES ARE USED IN ELECTRON MICROSCOPES ABBE’S CONDENSER USED IN DARK MICROSCOPE ELECTRON MICROSCOPE SECTIONS = 1 - 100 nm COUNTER STAIN IN GRAM STAINING = SAFRANIN A MORDANT IS USEFUL IN GRAM STAINING VIRUS IS SIMPLEST OF DISEASE CAUSING ENTITIES MYCOPLASMA CANNOT FORM CELL WALL SINGLE LARGEST KILLER OF HUMANS AS A MICROBIAL AGENT - PLASMODIUM ANTITOXIN THERAPY BEST FOR DIPTHERIA PNEUMOCYSTIS (PROTOZOAN) RESPONSIBLE FOR AIDS DEATHS VIRUES ARE ACELLULAR SPALLANZINI 1ST TO DISPUTE ABIOGENESIS REPRODUCTION OF VIRUS IS DEPENDENT ON HOST CELL STREPTOMYCES PRODUCED: TETRACYCLINE STREPTOMYCIN CHLORAMPHENICOL ERYTHROMYCIN “GOLDEN PERIOD” FOLLOWED KOCH’S POSTULATES PROKARYOTES DON’T LACK RIBOSOMES OSMIUM TETRA-OXIDE IS AN ELECTRON STAIN A MORDANT FORMS AN INSOLUBLE COMPLEX W/ THE PRIMARY DYE JOHN NEEDHAM SUPPORTED ABIOGENESIS THEORY CHAPTER #3 MICROSOPY & STAINING RESOLUTION - ABILTIY TO SEE 2 ITEMS SEPARATELY & DISTINTLY WAVELNGTH - MOST IMPORTANT PROPERTY OF LIGHT RESOLVING POWER - NUMERICAL RESOLUTION OF LENS CALCULATED BY NUMERICAL APERATURE REFLECTION - BOUNCING OF LIGHT OFF AN OBJECT TRANSMISSION - PASSAGE OF LIGHT THRU AN OBJECT ABSORPTION - LIGHT TAKEN UP BY OBJECT IMMERSION OIL AS SAME REFRACTION INDEX OF GLASS SLIDE INDEX OF REFRACTION - SPEED AT WHICH LIGHT CAN TRAVEL THROUGH AN OBJECT DIFFRACTION - LIGHT WAVES BEING BENT THRU AN OPENING COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE - AKA OPTICAL MICROSCOPE HAS A BASE, CONDENSER, IRIS DIAGHRAM, OBJECT LENS, BODY TUBE, OCULAR LENS, MECHANICAL STAGE, COARSE ADJ. KNOB, FINE ADJ. KNOB TOTAL MAG. = MAG. POWER OF OBJECTIVE LENS x OCULAR LENS SCANNING = 30x LOW POWER = 100x HIGH DRY POWER = 400x OIL IMMERSION = 1000x PARAFOCAL - CHANGE LENS AND REMAIN FOCUSED OCULAR MICROMETER - MEASURE OBJECTS DARK FIELD MICROSCOPY - LIGHT REFLECTS OFF SPECIMEN (SYPHYLIS BACTERIA) PHASE CONTRAST MICROSCOPY - TO OBSERVE ORGANISMS ALIVE AND UNSTAINED NOMARSKI MICROSCOPY (D.I.C.) - HAS SHORT DEPTH FIELD & CAN ALMOST PRODUCE A 3-D IMAGE FLUORESCENCE MICROSCOPY - USES ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT, CAN RELEASE LONGER WL OFF OBJECT USES FLUORESCENT DYE MOLECULES TO SEE ANTIGENS & ANTIBODIES CHAPTER 3 cont... ELECTRON MICROSCOPY - ALLOWED US TO SEE SUBCELULAR STRUCTURES TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY 500,000x MAGNIFICATION PREPARED W/ HEAVY ELEMENTS TO HELP FORM IMAGE SHADOW CASTING FREEZE FRACTURING - ALOWS YOU TO SEE INSIDE CELL FREEZE-ETCHING (EVAPORATION) - ALOWS ADDITIONAL SURFACES TO BE EXAMINED SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY - BINNIG & ROHRER (NP) TECHNIQUES OF LIGHT MICROSCOPY WET MOUNTS - 2% SOL. OF CARBOXYMETHYL CELLULOSE HANGING DROP - USED IN DARK FIELD, PETROLEUM JELLY SMEARS - USES PROCESS OF HEAT FIXATION - PASS SLIDE OVER OPEN FLAME 3 - 4x 1. KILLS THE ORGANISMS 2. ADHERES ORGANISMS TO SLIDE 3. ALLOWS ORGANISMS TO MORE READILY ACCEPT STAINS PRINCIPLES OF STAINING NEG. STAINING - USED WHEN CAPSULE RESISTS STAIN CAPSULE HAS A POLYSACCHARIDE LAYER STAINS THE BACKGROUND (INDIA INK) FLAGELLAR STAINING - STAIN W/ FLAGELLA W/ DYE OR METAL (SILVER) ENDOSPORE STAINING - ENDOSPORE WALLS ARE RESISTANT TO STAIN SCHAEFFER-FULTON SPORE STAIN ZIEHL-NEELSEN ACID-FAST STAIN CHAPTER 4 TABLE 4.1 PROKARYOTES vs EUKARYOTES CHARACTERISTICS GENETIC STRUCTURES PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES GENETIC MATERIAL CHROMOSOMES LOCATION OF GENETIC NUCLEUS IN SINGLE CHROMOSOMES IN PAIRED NUCLEOID MEMBRANE ENCLOSED MATERIAL NUCLEOLUS ABSENT PRESENT HISTONES ABSENT PRESENT EXTRACHROMOSOMAL IN PLASMIDS IN ORGANELLES DNA INTRACELLULAR STRUCTURES MIOTIC SPINDLE DIVISION PLASMA MEMBRANE STEROLS INTERNAL MEMBRANES MEMBRANE ENCLOSED ER RESP. ENZYMES ABSENT PRESENT DURING CELL FLUID, LACKING STEROLS FLUID W/ ONLY IN PHOTOSYNTHETIC NUMEROUS ORGANISMS ORGANELLES ABSENT PRESENT CELL MEMBRANE MITOCHONDRIA CHROMATOPHORES PRESENT IN PHOTOSYNTHETIC ABSENT BACTERIA CHLOROPALSTS GOLGI APPARATUS ABSENT ABSENT LYSOSOMES ABSENT PEROXISOMES ABSENT RIBOSOMES 70S PRESENT IN SOME PRESENT PRESENT PRESENT 80S IN CYTOPLASM & ER 70S IN ORGANELLES CYTOSKELETON ABSENT PRESENT EXTRACELLULAR STRUCTURES CELL WALL BOTH FOUND PEPTIDOGLYCAN CELLULOSE, CHITIN, or ON PALNT & FUNGAL CELLS EXTERNAL LAYER SHELL IN CERTAIN CAPSULE OR SLIME LAYER CONSISTS OF FIBRILS OF OF FLAGELLIN PELLICLE, TEST, OR PROTISTS FLAGELLA ARRANGEMENT ABSENT PRESENT (9 + 2) CILIA ABSENT PRESENT PILI PRESENT (CONJ. PILI) ABSENT TABLE 4.1 cont... CHARACTERISTICS PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES REPRODUCTIVE PROCESS CELL DIVISION BINARY FISSION SEXUAL CHANGE MITOSIS & / or MEIOSIS NOT PART OF REPRODUCTION MEIOSIS OF GENETIC MATERIAL SEXUAL or ASEXUAL ASEXUAL PROKARYOTIC CELLS SPHERICAL - COCCUS RODLIKE - BACILLUS SPIRAL - SPIRILLUM COMMA - VIBRIO SEXUAL or ASEXUAL CORKSCREW - SPIROCHETE ARRANGEMENT COCCI - DIVIDE IN TWO PLANES, PRODUCES TETRADS DIPLO - PAIRS STREPTO - CHAINS SARCINAE - DIVISION IN 3 PLANES STAPHYLO - BACILLI - DIVIDE IN ONE PLANE (CHAIN LIKE) SPIRAL BACTERIA - GROUP TOGETHER BACTERIAL CELLS CONSIST OF: A CELL MEMBRANE, CELL WALL & SOMETIMES ANOTHER LAYER INTERNAL CYTOPLASM W/ RIBOSOMES, NUC. REG, & SOMETIMES GRANULES OR VESICLES EXTERNAL STRUCTURES - CAPSULES, FLAGELLA, PILI CHAPTER 4 cont... CELL WALL: GIVES SHAPE TO CELL PREVENTS BURSTING DURING OSMOSIS COMPONENTS OF CELL WALL PEPTIDOGLYCAN (MUREIN) - SUPPRT NET AROUND BACTERIUM TEICHOIC ACID - CONTAINS GLYCEROLS, PHOSPHATES, RIBITOL (SUGAR ALCOHOL) FURNISHES ATTACHMENT SITES FOR BACTERIOPHAGES OUTER MEMBRANE - FOUND MAINLY IN GRAM NEG. BACTERIA PORINS (PROTEINS) FORM CHANNELS THRU OUTER MEMBRANE OUTER SURFACE HAS ANTIGENS & RECEPTORS ENDOTOXIN (LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE) - PART OF OUTER MEMBRANE & IDENTIFIES GRAM NEG. BACTERIA RELEASED WHEN CELLS ARE DYING PERIPLASMIC SPACE - GAP, REPRESENTING ACTIVE AREA OF METABOLISM DISTINGUISHING BACTERIA BY CELL WALLS GRAM POS. BACTERIA - LACK OUTER MEMBRANE AND PERIPLASMIC SPACE MUST BE TESTED WITHIN 24 HRS OF CELL GROWTH BECOME PROTOPLAST WHEN CELL WALL IS DIGESTED (PETIDOGLYCAN DIGESTED) GRAM ENG. BACTERIA - BECOME SPHEROPLASTS - WHEN CELL WALL IS DIGESTED * HAVE CELL MEMBRANE & OUTER MEMBRANE ACID-FAST BACTERIA - STAIN AS GRAM POS.