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CHAPTER 1
MICROBES PLAY IMPORTANT ROLES IN IN THE FOODS & MEDICINES WE INTAKE.
* THEY HAVE A MAJOR IMPACT ON OUR HEALTH & ENVIRONMENT
FEWER THAN 1% CAUSE DISEASE IN AN IMMUNE SUPPRESSED STATE - PATHOGENS
1962, U.S. SURGEON GENERAL STEWART DECLARED VICTORY OVER INFECTIOUS DISEASE
THRU DECOMPOSITION OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE, DEAD ORGANISMS, WASTE MATERIAL OF
LIVING ORGANISMS NITROGEN IS MADE AVAILABLE TO PLANTS
1/2 OF CHILDREN UNDER AGE 10 DIED OF INFECTIOUS DISEASE PRIOR TO THIS CENTURY
GRAZING ANIMALS CAN DIGEST GRASS BECAUSE OF MICROBES
ANTIBIOTIC SYNTHESIS - BENEFIT OF MICROORGANISMS
DERIVED FROM ONE ORGANISM TO KILL OR INHIBIT GROWTH OF OTHER
MICROORGANISMS
INTERFERON & GROWTH HORMONES - PRODUCED BY GENETICALLY ALTERED
MICROBES
NEW MICROBES HAVE BEEN PRODUCED TO DEGRADE OIL SPILLS, REMOVE MATERIALS
FROM SOIL, & TO DIGEST EXPLOSIVES
BIOCHEMISTS USE OF MICROBES:
STUDY OF METABOLIC PATHWAYS
SEQUENCE OF CHEM. Rxs IN LIVING ORGANISMS
INVESTIGATE THE PROCESS OF GENE TRANSMISSION
RESEARCHERS MAIN ATTRACTIONS TO MICROBES:
1. SIMPLE STRUCTURE, EASIER TO STUDY
2. COST EFFECTIVE FOR RELIABLE STATISTICS IN LAB
3. FAST REPRODUCTION USEFUL IN STUDIES OF GENTIC TRANSFER OF INFO.
ERADICATED DISEASES:
MEASLES
POLIO
CHICKEN POX
GERMAN MEASLES
SMALL POX
MICROBIOLOGY (SCOPE)
1. VARIETY OF TYPES OF MICROBES
2. KINDS OF WORK MICROBIOLOGISTS DO
CHAPTER 1
THE MICROBES
BEE BREAD (A POLLEN DERIVED NUTRIENT EATEN BY WORKER BEES)
CONTAINS 188 KINDS OF FUNGI & 29 KINDS OF BACTERIA
SIZES RANGE FROM SMALL VIRUSES = 20nm TO LARGE PROTOZOANS = 5mm
DIFFERENCE OF 250,000x
BACTERIA - UNICELLULAR > RODS, SPHERES, SPIRALS
NO NUCLEAS & LACK ORGANELLES
MANY ALGAE ARE UNICELLULAR
EXCEPTION > MARINE ALGAE
ALGAE ARE IMPORTANT SOURCE OF FOOD FOR MANY ORGANISMS
ONLY 1 SPECIES HAS BEEN FOUND TO CAUSE DISEASE IN HUMANS
FUNGI - UNICELLULAR > YEASTS & SOME MOLDS
EXCEPTION > MUSHROOM IS MULTICELLULAR & MACROSCOPIC
CELL NUCLEUS & ORGANELLES
ALL ABSORB NUTRIENTS READYMADE FROM ENVIRONMENT
AGENTS OF DISEASE & SOURCES OF ANTIBIOTICS
VIRUSES
COMPOSED OF A NUCLEI & PROTEINS
CAN BE CRYSTALLIZED & STORED BUT RETAIN ABILITY TO INVADE CELLS
ONLY REPLICATE W/IN CELLS OF HOST
PROTOZOA - UNICELLULAR W/ ORGANELLES
CAUSE DISEASE IN HUMANS (IMMOBILE) MOST OTHERS ARE MOBILE
HELMITHS - WORMS
ANTHROPODS - INSECTS
CHAPTER 1
MICROBES cont...
GENUS & SPECIES:
ESCHERICHIA COLI - FOUND IN THE HUMAN GUT
(BACTERIA)
GIARIDIA INTESINALIS - CAUSES SEVERE DIARRHEA
(PROTOZOAN)
HERPESVIRUSES - NAMED FOR GROUP IN WHICH THEY BELONG
POLIOVIRUSES - NAMED FOR THE DISEASE THEY CAUSE
DIFFERENT FIELDS OF MICROBIOLOGY
MICROBIAL TAXONOMY - CLASSIFY MICROORGANISMS
BACTERIOLOGY
PHYCOLOGY - ALGAE
MYCOLOGY - FUNGI
PROTOZOLOGY
PARASITOLOGY
VIROLOGY
BASED ON FUNCTIONS:
MICROBIAL METABOLISM - CHEM Rxs W/IN MICROBES
MICROBIAL GENETICS - TRANSMISSION & ACTION OF GENETIC INFO.
MICROBIAL ECOLOGY - RELATIONSHIPS W/ EACH OTHER & THEIR ENVIRONMENT
HEALTH RELATED FIELDS:
IMMUNOLOGY
EPIDEMIOLOGY - FREQUENCY & DISTRIBUTION OF DISEASES
ETIOLOGY - CAUSE OF DISEASE
INFECTION CONTROL - CONTROL SPREAD & DEVELOPMENT OF CHEM. SUBSTANCES TO
TREAT DISEASES
CHAPTER 1
DIFFERENT FIELDS cont...
APPLICATIONS OF KOWLEDGE:
FOOD & BEVERAGE TECHNOLOGY - PRTECT US FROM DISEASED ORGANISMS IN FOOD...
ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY
INDUSTRIAL MICROBIOLOGY - MANUFACTURING OF FERMENTED FOODS...
PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY
GENETIC ENGINEERING - SYNTHESIZE PRODUCTS USEFUL TO HUMANS
BASIC RESEARH = TAXONOMY, PROCESSES, & RELATION TO DISEASE
(IMMUNOLOGY...)
APPLIED MICRO - DISEASE RELATED, ENVIRONMENTAL, INDUSTRIAL
(INFECTION CONTROL)
BIREMEDIATION - ORGANISMS DEVELOPED TO CLEAN UP ENVIRONMENT
HISTORICAL ROOTS
HIPPOCRATES - MEDICAL ETHICS
THUCYDIDES - PLAGUE SURIVORS DEVELOPMENT OF RESISTANCE
VARRO - TINY ORGANISM ENTER NOSE & MOUTH TO CAUSE DISEASE
BUBONIC PLAGUE (BLACK DEATH)
MEDITERRANEAN - 542 A.D.
EUROPE - 1347
JEWISH POP. NOT HIT AS HARD DUE TO SANITATION & HERBAL
REMEDIES
ROBERT HOOKE:
LEEWENHOEK:
CORK CELLS
MICROSCOPIC LENSES OF QUALITY (UP TO 300x MAG.)
CALLED MICROBES - ANIMALCULES
AFTER DEATH MICROBIOLOGY DIDN’T ADVANCE FOR OVER A
CENTURY
LINNAEUS:
ORG.
DEVELOPED GEN. CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM FOR ALL LIVING
SCHWANN & SCHLEIDEN:
CELL THEORY (DOEN’T APPLY TO VIRSUES)
CHAPTER 1
GERM THEORY OF DISEASE
GERMS CAN INVADE OTHER ORGANISMS & CAUSE DISEASE
SPONTANEOUS GENERATION - BELIEF THAT MICROORGANISMS WERE DERIVED
FROM NON-LIVING THINGS, IT TOOK SCIENCE YRS. TO DISPELL THIS BELIEF
EARLY STUDIES
AS LATE AS THE 19TH CENTURY PEOPLE THOUGHT THAT ROTTING MEAT GAVE
RISE TO WORMS
REDI:
MEAT
EXPERIMENT OF COVERING MEAT TO PROVE WORMS DIDN’T APPEAR ON
SPALLANZANI:
MEAT
BOILED BROTH CONTAINING ORGANIC MATTER SEALED THE
& SHOWED NO WORMS DEVELOPED SPONTANEOUSLY
PASTEUR & TYNDALL - DEFEATED THEORY OF SPONTANEOUS GENERATION
PASTEUR:
USING SWAN NECK FLASKS: BOILED INFUSIONS & HEATED NECK & DREW THEM
OUT TO OPEN CURVED TUBES OF THE NECK
AIR COULD GET IN
AIRBORNE MICROBES WOULD BECOME TRAPPED IN TUBES BEFORE
REACHING THE INFUSION
HE ALSO FILTERD AIR W/ COTTON & PLACED THE COTTON IN STERILE SOLUTION
TO SHOW THE MICROBES HAD BEEN FILTERED OUT OF AIR
TYNDALL:
BOILED & SEALED INFUSIONS IN AIRTIGHT BOX
PASTEUR’S CONTRIBUTIONS cont...
DISCOVERED THAT CAREFULLY SELECTED YEASTS MADE GOOD WINE
OTHER MICROBES THAT COMPETED FOR SUGAR IN WINE TURNED IT SOUR
THIS DEVELOPED PASTEURIZATION - HEAT WINE TO 56 DEGREES
CELCIUS IN ABSENCE OF O2 FOR 30 MIN.
IDENTIFIED 3 DIFFERENT MICROORGANISMS WHILE STUDYING SILKWORMS, EACH
CAUSED A DIFFERENT DISEASE - HELPED TO PROVE GERM THEORY OF DISEASE
CONTRIBUTED TO DEVELOPMENT OF VACCINES
RABIES VACCINE: MADE OF DRIED SPINAL CORD OF RABBITS INFECTED W/ THE
DISEASE - 1ST GIVEN TO A DOG BITE VICTIM
PASTEUR INSTITUTE DIRECTOR IN 1894
CHAPTER 1
ROBERT KOCH’S CONTRIBUTIONS
SPENT MOST OF TIME STUDYING BACTERIA
ANTHRAX - HIGHLY CONTAGIOUS AND DEADLY DISEASE IN CATTLE
CELLS
KOCH RECOGNIZED HIGHLY ACTIVE DIVIDING CELLS & DORMANT
(SPORES)
HE DEVELOPED TECHNIQUES FOR STUDYING THEM IN VITRO
DEVELOPED GROWTH OF BACTERIA IN PURE CULTURES
ANGELA HESS - SUGGESTED FOR KOCH TO ADD AGAR FOR BACT. MEDIA
KOCH’S POSTULATES (TO ASSOC. PARTICULAR ORANISM w/ A SPECIFIC DISEASE)
1. SPECIFIC CAUSATIVE AGENT MUST BE FOUND IN EVERY CASE OF DISEASE
2. THE DISEASED ORGANIS MUST BE ISOLATED IN PURE CULTURE
3. INNOCULATION INTO A HEALTHY, SUSCEPTIBLE ANIMAL MUST PRODUCE THE
SAME DISEASE
4. THE DISEASED ORGANISM MUST BE RECOVERED FROM THE INOCULATED
ANIMAL
* THESE ALL HELPED IN DEVELOPING THE GERM THEORY
IDENTIFIED THE BACTERIA CAUSING TUBERCULOSIS (NOBEL - PRIZE IN 1905)
TUBERCULIN PROVED TO BE FATAL WHEN ADMINISTERED
RESEARCHED MALARIA, TYPHOID FEVER, SLEEPING SICKNESS...
WORK TOWARD CONTROLLING INFECTIONS
SEMMELWEIS - CONNECTION BETWEEN AUTOPSIES & PUERPERAL (CHILDBED) FEVER
DOCTORS WERE GOING FROM AUTOPSIES DIRECTLY TO EXAMINING WOMEN IN
LABOR W/OUT WASHING HANDS
LISTER - THE FIRST ANTISEPTIC TECHNIQUES WERE PROVEN TO REDUCE SURGICAL
INFECTIONS
INTRODUCED CARBOLIC ACID
FATHER OF ANTISEPTIC SURGERY
HIS WORK FOLLOWED UP SEMMELWEIS’S
CHAPTER 1
IMMUNOLOGY
THE CHINESE TOOK DRIED SMALLPOX SCABS & TURNED THEM INTO POWDER & SNIFFED
THEM IN VIA THE NOSE TO BUILD IMMUNITY TO SMALL POX
VARIOLATION - TECHNIUE USED BY ASLEY MONTAGE TO IMMUNIZE PEOPLE AGAINST
SMALL POX IN EUROPE (USE A THREAD SOAKED IN SP BLISTER & DRAWN THRU AN
INCISION IN ARM)
EDWARD JENNER - COWPOX INOCULATIONS
VACCINIA - GAVE RISE TO THE NAME OF THE VIRUS FOR COWPOX & AND
THE WORD VACCINE
MAY HAVE RECEIVED THE FIRST GRANTS FOR MEDICAL RESEARCH
PASTEUR - CONTRIBUTED W/ WORK ON VACCINES FOR RABIES & CHLOREA
REALIZED THAT ORGANISMS COULD LOSE ABILITY TO REPRODUCE BUT
COULD STILL BUILD IMMUNTIY - THIS FINDING W/ CHLOREA IN CHICKENS
LED TO THE RABIES VACCINATION
METCHNIKOFF - DISCOVERD PHAGOCYTES WHICH WAS FIRST STEP TO UNDERSTANDING
IMMUNOLOGY
DEVELOPED SEVERAL VACCINES ALTHOUGH SOME SUBJECTS RECEIVED
GONORRHEA & SYPHILIS FROM HIS VACCINES DURING TESTING
VIROLOGY
CHARLES CHAMBERLIN - DEVELOPED PORCELAIN FILTER FOR BACTERIA
BEIRJERINCK - DISCOVERED THAT SMALLER FILTRATES MADE IT THROUGH
THE FILTER & CAUSED INFECTION - VIRUSES - SPECIFIC PATHOGENIC
MOLECULES INCORPORATED INTO CELLS - ALSO TERMED HOST CELLS
WENDELL STANLEY - CRYSTALLIZED TOBACCO MOSAIC VIRUS
PROPERTIES OF LIVING AGENTS ALSO ACT AS CHEMICAL SUBSTANCE
CRYSTALS WERE PROTEIN & RNA - NUCLEIC ACID WAS SHOWN TO
BE IMPORTANT TO THE INFECTIVITY OF THE VIRUS
ALFRED HERSHEY & MARTHA CHASE - DEMONSTRATD DNA IN VIRUS
WATSON & CRICK - DETERMINED STRUCTURE OF DNA
CHAPTER 1
CHEMOTHERAPY
DIOSCORIDES - GEEK PHYS. WHO COMPILED THE MATERIA MEDICA IN THE FIRST
CENTURY A.D.
SUSBTANCES DERIVED FROM PLANTS STILL USED TODAY:
DIGITALIS
CURARA
EPHEDRINE
MORPHINE
ALSO MANY HERBAL MEDICATIONS
PARACELSUS - USED METALLIC CHANNEL ELEMENTS TO TREAT DISEASE
ANTIMONY - FOR GENERAL INFECTIONS
MERCURY - FOR SYPHILIS
SYDENHAM - CINCHONA TREEE BARK FOR MALARIA
CONTAINS QUININE - USED TO TREAT FEVERS IN SPAIN & SOUTH AMERICA
19TH CENTURY - MORPHINE EXTRACTED FROM OPIUM POPPY
EHRLICH - FIRST SERIOUS RESEARCHER IN CHEMOTHERAPY
DISCOVERED CERTAIN DYES STAINED MICROBES & NOT ANIMAL CELLS
DYES OR OTHER CHEMICALS MIGHT BE USED TO KILL MICROBES
LED TO SEARCH FOR THE “MAGIC BULLET” KILL MICROBES W/OUT KILLING
SURROUNDING TISSUES
STARTED FIRST CHEMOTHERAPY INSTITUTE
EHRLICH’S INSTITUTE:
COMPOUND 418 (ARSENOPHENYLGLYCINE) - FOR SLEEP SICKNESS
COMPOUND 606 (SALVARSAN) - FOR SYPHILIS
FLEMING - DISCOVERED LYSOZYME - FOUND IN TEARS, SWEAT, & SALIVA
COULD KILL BACTERIA, FIRST BODY SECRETION FOUND TO HAVE CHEMO.
PROPERTIES
1917 - DEVELOPMENT OF ANTIBIOTICS - CERTAIN BACTERIA STOP GROWTH OF OTHER
BACTERIA
FLEMING - DISCOVERD PENICILLIN THRU WORK W/ STAPHYLOCOCCUS
FURTHER DEVELOPED DURING WWII
CHAPTER 1
1935 - SULFA DRUGS WERE BEING DEVELOPED
PRONTOSIL RUBRUM - USED FOR TREATMENT OF STREPTOCOCCAL INFECTIONS
REDDISH DYE CONTAINING A SULFONAMIDE CHEM. GROUP
DOMAGK - MAJOR ROLE IN DEVELOPING SULFANILAMIDES
PRONTOSIL SAVED THE LIFE OF HIS DAUGHTER
WAKSMAN - COINED THE TERM ANTIBIOTIC
ISOLATED STREPTOMYCIN FOR TREATMENT OF TUBERCULOSIS
ALONG W/ OTHERS ISOLATED:
NEOMYCIN
CHLORAMPHENICOL
CHLORTETRACYCLINE
BROTZU - CEPHALSPORIN FROM SEAWATER
GENETICS & MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
MODERN GENETICS BEGAN W/ REDISCOVERY OF MENDEL’S WORK
1874 - 1917 > THE GOLDEN AGE OF MICROBIOLOGY
FREDERICK GRIFFITH - BACTERAI COULD CHANGE THEIR OWN NATURE & BECOME
DISEASE CAUSING
BACTERIA COULD INHERIT TRAITS FROM DEAD BACTERIA
AVERY, McCARTY, & MACLEOD - CHANGE BY BACTERIA WAS PRODUCED BY THE DNA
THEN WATSON & CRICK DISCOVERD THE STRUCTURE OF DNA
TATUM & BEADLE - USED NEUROSPORA TO SHOW HOW GENES CONTROLLED
METABOLISM
BARABARA McCLINTOCK - GENES COULD MOVE FROM ONE LOCATION TO ANOTHER
ON A CHROMOSOME - CAUSED REVISON OF GENE THEORIES
RECENT DISCOVERIES SHOW GENES BEING SHUFFLED & SPLICED TO MAKE ANTIBODIES
EVEN AGAINST THREATS NOT YET ENCOUNTERED
TOMORROW’S HISTORY
1990 - FIRST GENE THERAPY PATIENT, GIVEN NEW GENE FOR IMMUNE SYSTEM DEFECT
CHAPTER 1
HUMANE GENOME PROJECT
COST OF 3 BILLION DOLLARS OVER 15 YEARS (‘TIL YEAR 2005)
IDENTIFYING LOCATION & CHEMICAL SEQUENCE OF ALL GENES IN HUMAN GENOME
ESTIMATED TO CONSIST OF OVER 3 BILLION BASE PAIRS
THEY HAVE COMPLETELY SEQUENCED:
HAEMOPHILUS INFLUENZA - CAUSE OF EAR INFECTIONS
HELICOBACTER PYLORI - CAUSE OF STOMACH ULCERS
BORRELIA BURGDORFERI - CAUSES LYME DISEASE
CRAIG VENTOR - DEVELOPED MORE EFFICIENT TECHNIQUES & DOUBLED THE KNOWN
2000 GENES OF HUMANS IN A FEW MONTHS
TABLE 1.3 EARLY MICROBIOLOGISTS & ACHIEVEMENTS
YEAR
NAME
ACHIEVEMENTS
* CAUSATIVE AGENT = (CA)
* NOBEL PRIZE = (NP)
1874
1883
BILLROTH
KOCH
DISCOVERED ROUND BACTERIA IN CHAINS
VIBRIO CHOLERAE (CA) OF
CHOLERA
1876
BACILLUS ANTHACIS (CA) OF
1878
DIFFERENTIATION OF
ANTHRAX
STAPHYLOCOCCI
1882
MYCOBACTERIUM
1905
(NP) - TUBERCULOSIS
TUBERCULOSIS (CA) OF TB
1879
HANSEN
MYCOBACTERIUM LEPRAE (CA) OF LEPROSY
1880
NEISSER
NEISSERIA GONORRHEOEAE (CA) OF GONNORHEA
1880
EBERTH
SALMONELLA TYPHI (CA) OF TYPHOID FEVER
STERNBERG w/ PASTEUR
1880
ISOLATION & CULTURING OF PNEUMONIA COCCI FROM
SALIVA
1883
KLEBS
DIPTHERIA
CORYNEBACTERIUM DIPTHERIA & TOXIN (CA) OF
1885
ESCHERICH
ESCHERICHIA COLI IS NATURAL INHABITANT OF GUT
1887
PETRI
INVENTION OF CULTURE DISC
1888
YERSIN w/ ROUX
DISCOVERY OF ACTION OF DIPTHERIA TOXIN
1890
VON BEHRING
IMMUNIZATION OF ANIMALS w/ DIPTHERIA TOXIN
w/ KITASATO
1901
1892
VIRUS
(NP) - SERUM THERAPY AGAINST DIPTHERIA
IVANOVSKI
DISCOVERY OF FILTERABLITIY OF TOBACCO MOSAIC
1897
VAN ERMENGEM
CLOSTRIDIUM BOTULINUM (CA) OF BOTULISM
1897
EHRLICH
ANTIBODY
FORMATION
FORMULATION OF SIDE-CHAIN THEORY OF
1908
w/ METCHNIKOFF
(NP) - IMMUNITY
1898
SHIGA
SHIGELLA DYSENTERIAE (CA) OF DYSENTERY
TABLE 1.3 cont...
YEAR
NAME
ACHIEVEMENT (CA) = CAUSATIVE AGENT
(NP) = NOBEL PRIZE
1899
BEIJERINCK
MOSAIC VIRUS
1880
ROSS w/ LAVERNE
DISCOVERY OF INTRACELLULAR PROD. OF TOBACCO
LIFE CYCLE OF MALARIAL PARASITES IN RBS OF
INFECTED HUMANS
1902
1939
(NP) - MALARIA
DOMAGK
FLEMING w/ CHAIN & FOLEY
(NP) - ANTIBACTERIAL EFFECT OF PRONTOSIL
(NP) - PENICILLIN
1945
1951
THEILER
(NP) - VACCINE FOR YELLOW FEVER
1952
WAKSMAN
1962
WATSON & CRICK
1993
MULLIS
AMPLIFY
(NP) - STREPTOMYCIN
(NP) - STRUCTURE OF DNA
(NP) -
POLYMERASE CHAIN Rx METHOD TO
(COPY) DNA
1908
METCHNIKOFF
(NP) - IMMUNITY
w/ EHRLICH
1939
DUBOS
DISCOVERED TYROTHRYCIN, ANTIBIOTIC PROD. BY THE
SOIL
ENDERS???
WELLER & ROBBINS???
TABLE 9.2 THE 5 KINGDOM SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION p. 228
MONERA
PROTISTA
FUNGI
PLANTAE
ANAMALIA
prokaryota
CELL TYPE
EUKARYOTIC
CELL
MULTI-
PROKARYOTIC
EUKARYOTIC
UNI-,
UNI-,
ORGANIZATION OCCASIONALLY
GROUPED
CELL WALL
PRESENT
EUKARYOTIC
UNI- or MULTI
MULTI-
OCCASIONALLY
MULTI-
PRESENT IN
ABSENT
MOST
NUTRITION
ABSORPTIVE,
EUKARYOTIC
ABSORPTION,
INGESTION,
PRESENT/
PRESENT
ABSCENT
INGESTION or
ABSORPTION
PHOTO- &
ABSORTION,
PHOTOSYN.
OCCAS. IN
CHEMOSYN-
SOME PHOTO-
THETIC
SYNTHETIC
SOME
PARASITES
BY
ABSORPTION
REPRODUCTION ASEXUAL,
PRIM. SEXUAL
MOSTLY
by binary fission
BOTH SEXUAL BOTH
ASEXUAL,
OCCAS. BOTH
& ASEXUAL,
often involving
a complex life cycle
MONERA
ANIMALIA
PROTISTA
FUNGI
PLANTAE
CHLAMYDIA
HELMINTHES
PROTISTA
FUNGI
ALGAE
MICROPLASMIC
RICKETTSIAE
BACTERIA - CONVENTIONAL
TABLE 9.3 BACTERIA, ARCHAEA, & EUKARYA COMPARED p. 235
BACTERIA
CELL TYPE
PRO-
EUKARYA
PRO-
TYP. SIZE
um
CELL WALL
MADE OF
ARCHAEA
.5 - 4 um
EUKARYOTIC
.5 - 4 um
USUALLY PRESENT
PRESENT, LACK
CONTAIN PEPTIDO-
PEPTIDOGLYCAN
>5
ABSENT oR
OTHER MATERIALS
GLYCAN
LIPIDS IN MEMBRANES
FA, LINKED BY ESTERS
FA, LINKED BY ESTERS
BY ETHERS
ISOPRENES, LINKED
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
1ST AA = METHIONIE
IMPAIRED
ANTIBIOTICS
1ST AA = METHIONINE
IMPAIRED BY ANTI
- BIOTICS
1ST AA = FORMYL-
METHIONIE
NOT IMPAIRED BY
MOST NOT
ANTIBIOTICS
GENETIC MATERIAL
COMPLEX NUCLEUS
SMALL CIRCULAR
CHROMOSOME &
SMALL CIRCULAR
CHROMOSOME &
MORE THAN
1 LARGE
PLASMIDS, HISTONES
PLASMIDS, HISTONE
LINEAR CHROMOSOME,
ABSENT
LIKE PROTEINS PRESENT
HISTONES PRESENT
RNA POLYMERASE
LOCOMOTION
FLAGELLA,
SIMPLE
SIMPLE FLAGELLA,
GAS VESICLES
CILIA, LEGS, FINS, WINGS
HABITAT
RANGE OF
WIDE RANGE OF
ENVIRONMENTS
ENVIRONMENTS
COMPLEX
SIMPLE FLAGELLA,
COMPLEX
COMPLEX
GAS VESICLES
USUALLY ONLY
EXTREME ENVIRON.
WIDE
TYPICAL ORGANISMS
ALGAE, PROTOZOA,
ENTERIC BACTERIA,
CYANOBACTERIA
METHANE PRODUCING
BACTERIA, HALOBACT,
FUNGI, PLANTS,
EXTREME
ANIMALS
THERMOPHILES
TABLE 10.6 COMPARISON OF VIRUSES, VIROIDS, AND PRIONS p. 280
VIRUS
NUCLEIC ACID
VIROID
(+)
(ssDNA,dsDNA
ssRNA, or dsRNA)
(+)
(ssRNA)
PRION
(-)
PRESENCE OF CASPID (+)
(-)
(-)
OR ENVELOPE
PRESENCE OF
(+)
(-)
(+)
PROTEIN
NEED FOR
HELP VIRUSES
(+ / -)
NEEDED BY SOME OF THE
SMALLER VIRUSES (PARVOVIRUSES)
EFFECTED BY HEAT
(+)
(-)
(-)
(+)
(+)
( -)
PLANTS
MAMMALS
& PROTEIN DENAT.
AGENTS
EFFECTED BY
RADIATION OF
ENZYMES THAT
DIGEST DNA or RNA
HOST
BACTERIA,
ANIMALS, or
PLANTS
* ACELLULAR - DON’T HAVE ALL THE CRITERIA OF A LIVING ORGANISM
PRION
>
VIROID
>
VIRUS
INCREASED COMPLEXITY >
CLASS NOTES TEST #1
MICRON = um
=
1 MILLIONTH OF A METER = 10 to the -6
NANOMETER =
1 BILLIONTH OF A METER = 10 to the -9
ANGSTROM =
10 BILLIONTH OF A METER = 10 to the -10
VIROIDS - O.T. DIENER
DIFFER FROM VIRUSES IN 4 WAYS
1. EACH VIROID CONSISTS OF A SINGLE SPECIFIC RNA
2. EXIST IN CELLS AS PARICLES OF RNA W/OUT CAPSIDS
3. NOT APPARENT IN INFECTED TISSUES W/OUT SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
4. RNA OF VIROIDS ARE OF LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT
CAUSE SEVERAL PLANT DISEASES:
POTATO SPINDLE TUBER DISEASE
CRYSANTHEMUM STUNT
CUCUMBER PALE FRUIT DISEASE
GROWING OF SAME PLANTS IN CLOSE ASSOC. & MACHINE HARVESTING MAY
HAVE CAUSED PROLIFERATION OF VIROIDS
PRIONS
DISEASES:
CREUTZFELCDT-JAKOB DISEASE
KURU
SCRAPIE - IN SHEEP
PRIONS MAY BE A PROTEIN - IT IS NOT DESTROYED BY AGENTS THAT DIGEST
NUCLEIC ACIDS
POSSIBLE MEANS OF REPLICATION:
1. DIRECT PAIRING OF AMINO ACIDS
2. REVERSE TRANSLATION TO RNA
3. SYNTHESIS OF A PROTEIN DIRECTED BY A SMALL NUCLEIC ACID
PROTECTED BY THE PROTEIN OR ACTIVATION OF A GENE
CLASS NOTES cont...
VIRUSES - 2 ESSNTIAL COMPONENTS
CAPSID
ENVELOP E
NUCLEIC ACID
2 STRANDED DNA
2 STRANDED RNA
1 STRANDED DNA
1 STRANDED RNA
CAPSID - PROTEIN COAT, PROTECTS NUCLEIC ACID & DETERMINES SHAPE OF VIRUS
ENVELOPE - BILAYER MEMBRANE
VIRION - A COMPLETE VIRUS PARTICLE W/ ENVELOPE IF IT HAS ONE
ALL VIRUSES CONTAIN A GENOME
NAKED VIRUS - LACKS AN ENVELOPE
GLYCOPROTEINS IN ENVELOPES, KNOWN AS SPIKES:
CAN ATTACH VIRUS TO RECEPTOR CELLS OF HOST
FUSION OF VIRAL & CELL MEMBRANES
MATRIX PROTEINS IN ENVELOPE:
CONTRIBUTE TO STRUCTURE OF ENVELOPE
SOMETIMES ASSIST IN ASSEMBLY OF COMPONENTS INTO NEW VIRUSES
HOST RANGE OF VIRUS & SPECIFICITY OF VIRUS...
PROKARYOTIC BACTERIA
CHLAMYDIA - AKA: ENERGY PARASITES
LACK ABILTY TO SYNTHESIZE ATP, DEPENDENT ON HOST FOR ATP
HYPOTROPHIC - UNABLE TO GROW ON MEDIA
AKA: OBLIGATE INTRACELLULAR PARASITES
#1 STD - CHLAMYDIA TRACHOMATIS
#1 CAUSE OF BLINDNESS - SAME AS ABOVE (AMERICAN INDIANS)
(TRACHOMA)
ERYTHROMYCIN & TETRACYCLINE - USED AT BIRTH
FOR
EYE TEST
CLASS NOTES cont...
MICROPLASMIAE - FOUND IN UROGENITAL TRACT - STD
HAS STEROLS IN MEMBRANES
NO CELL WALL - NO GENES FOR CELL WALL SYNTHESIS
PLEOMORPHIS - NO DEFINITE SHAPE
SPHAEROPLASTS - ARTIFICIALLY REMOVE CELL WALL
CAUSES PNEUMONIA
RICKETTSIAE
ALMOST ALL ARE HYPOTROPHIC
ROCY MOUNTAIN SPOTTED FEVER
TYPHUS FEVER - CAUSED DEFEAT & RETREAT OF NAPOLEAN FROM RUSSIA
TRANSMITTED BY INSECT
BODY LICE (REDIULUS CAP.) P. CORPOIS
LYME DISEASE
BACTERIA - CONVENTIONAL
YERSIAN PESTIS - LARGEST KILLER
STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE - BIGGEST KILLER TODAY
SALMONELLA FOOD POISONING
E. COLIN
VINBRIO CHLOREA - DEHYDRATER
BENEFICIAL ROLE OF BACTERIA
STREPTOMYCIN - SOURCE OF LIFE SAVING DRUGS
TETRACYCLINE
ERYTHROMYCIN
PSEUDOMNA - OIL EATING BACTERIA
CLASS NOTES cont...
FUNGI - MULTICELLULAR
MYCOLOGY - STUDY OF
MYCOSIS - FUNGAL DISEASES
CANDIDA -
GI TRACT - MOUTH
UROGENITAL TRACT
SKIN INFECTIONS:
DERMATOPHYTOSIS
* MORE PEOPLE DIE FROM MYCOSIS THAN CANCER
- CHEMOTHERAPY
HISTOPLASMOSIS & COCCIDIOMOSIS - NAT’L BOARD
FUNGI RECLE ELEMENTS
PENICIILIN & CEPHALOSPONIN FROM FUNGI
EDIBLE MUSHROOMS - * AMALNITA IS DEADLY MUSHROOM
ALGAE
PHOTOSYNTHETIC
AGAR AGAR - PORPHYRA
CHORELLA - EDIBLE ALGAE
HELMINTHES - WORMS
TAPEWORM
ASCARIS
BRUGIA & WUCHERERIA: FILIRIASIS
BLOCK LYMPHATIC SYSTEM, LARGE COLLECTION OF BODY FLUIDS
THEY PARACYTISE THE HUMAN MECHANISM
RIVER’S POSTULATES FOR NONCULTURABLE ORGANISMS
NOT AS NARROW AS KOCH’S POSTULATES
EXCEPTIONS TO KOCH’S POSTULATES
TREPONEMA PALLIDUM - SYPHILIS - UNCULTURABLE, NO EXPERIMENTAL
HOST
MICROBACTERIUM LEPRAE - LEPROSY - UNCULTURABLE
TRUE STATEMENTS FROM TEST #1 PONIES
VIRUSES HAVE PROTEIN & NUCLEIC ACID
PRION HAS PROTEIN ONLY
VIROID HAS NUCLEIC ACID ONLY
CHLAMYDIA CAUSES BLINDENESS
FRITZE ZIRNIKE DEVELOPED PHASE CONTRAST MICROSCOPE
SCRAPIE IS A NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASE IN SHEEP CAUSED BY PRIONS
TREPONA PALLIDUM & MICROBACTERIUM LEPRAE DON’T MEET KOCH’S POSTULATES
VIRUSES ARE LEAST APPLICABLE TO KOCH’S POSTULATES
CONTAGIUM VIVUM FLUIDUM REFERS TO VIRUSES
RICKETTSIA IS TRANSMITTED THRU INSECTS
PRIONS ARE PROTENACEOUS
REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE DISCOVERED BY TEMIN & BALTIMORE
VIROIDS ARE (CA) OF PLANT DISEASES
CHLAMYDIA MOST COMMON CAUSE OF STD
ROCKY MOUNTAIN SPOTTED FEVER IS A RICKETTSIA DISEASE
TOXOPLASMA CAN GO ACROSS PLACENTA
ONE OF LEADING CAUSES OF MICROBIAL DEATH - PNEUMONIA (STREPTOCOCAL)
VIRTUALLY ERADICATED DISEASES - CHICKEN POX, SMALL POX, MEASLES, POLIO
GENETIC ENGINEERING USES ESCHERICHIA MOST EXTENSIVELY
EHRLICH RESPONSIBLE FOR FIRST DRUGS AGAINST SYPHYLIS
MICROBIOLOGY DOESN’T INCLUDE THE STUDY OF ANGIOSPERMS
REFRACTIVE INDEX OF OIL IMMERSION CLOSE TO THAT OF GLASS SLIDE
STAIN COLORS MATERIAL IN LIGHT MICROSCOPY
CENTRIFUGE USED IN SEPARATION OF SUBCELLULAR SUBSTANCE
TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY WL = 0.05 ANGSTROM
RED BACTERIA AFTER GRAM STAINING IS GRAM NEG.
PONY MATERIAL TEST #1 cont...
ORGANISM STAINED W. CARBOL FUCHSIN & IT APPEARS ON A BRIGHT RED BACTERIA
IT IS ACID FAST BACTERIA
ENDERS, WEELER & ROBBINS INVOLVED IN CULTIVATION OF POLIO VIRUS
PROKARYOTE NUCLEUS IS NON-MEMBRANE BOUND
HELA CELLS ARE OF HUMAN ORIGIN
TOXOPLASMA IS A PROTOZOAN & CAN CROSS PLACENTA
KOCH DEVELOPED POSTULATES WHILE WORKING W/ BACILLUS ANTHRACIS
MELACHITE GREEN IS PRIMARY STAINED USED IN SPORE STAINING
METALLIC LENSES ARE USED IN ELECTRON MICROSCOPES
ABBE’S CONDENSER USED IN DARK MICROSCOPE
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE SECTIONS = 1 - 100 nm
COUNTER STAIN IN GRAM STAINING = SAFRANIN
A MORDANT IS USEFUL IN GRAM STAINING
VIRUS IS SIMPLEST OF DISEASE CAUSING ENTITIES
MYCOPLASMA CANNOT FORM CELL WALL
SINGLE LARGEST KILLER OF HUMANS AS A MICROBIAL AGENT - PLASMODIUM
ANTITOXIN THERAPY BEST FOR DIPTHERIA
PNEUMOCYSTIS (PROTOZOAN) RESPONSIBLE FOR AIDS DEATHS
VIRUES ARE ACELLULAR
SPALLANZINI 1ST TO DISPUTE ABIOGENESIS
REPRODUCTION OF VIRUS IS DEPENDENT ON HOST CELL
STREPTOMYCES PRODUCED:
TETRACYCLINE
STREPTOMYCIN
CHLORAMPHENICOL
ERYTHROMYCIN
“GOLDEN PERIOD” FOLLOWED KOCH’S POSTULATES
PROKARYOTES DON’T LACK RIBOSOMES
OSMIUM TETRA-OXIDE IS AN ELECTRON STAIN
A MORDANT FORMS AN INSOLUBLE COMPLEX W/ THE PRIMARY DYE
JOHN NEEDHAM SUPPORTED ABIOGENESIS THEORY
CHAPTER #3 MICROSOPY & STAINING
RESOLUTION - ABILTIY TO SEE 2 ITEMS SEPARATELY & DISTINTLY
WAVELNGTH - MOST IMPORTANT PROPERTY OF LIGHT
RESOLVING POWER - NUMERICAL RESOLUTION OF LENS
CALCULATED BY NUMERICAL APERATURE
REFLECTION - BOUNCING OF LIGHT OFF AN OBJECT
TRANSMISSION - PASSAGE OF LIGHT THRU AN OBJECT
ABSORPTION - LIGHT TAKEN UP BY OBJECT
IMMERSION OIL AS SAME REFRACTION INDEX OF GLASS SLIDE
INDEX OF REFRACTION - SPEED AT WHICH LIGHT CAN TRAVEL THROUGH AN OBJECT
DIFFRACTION - LIGHT WAVES BEING BENT THRU AN OPENING
COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE - AKA OPTICAL MICROSCOPE
HAS A BASE, CONDENSER, IRIS DIAGHRAM, OBJECT LENS, BODY TUBE, OCULAR
LENS, MECHANICAL STAGE, COARSE ADJ. KNOB, FINE ADJ. KNOB
TOTAL MAG. = MAG. POWER OF OBJECTIVE LENS x OCULAR LENS
SCANNING = 30x
LOW POWER = 100x
HIGH DRY POWER = 400x
OIL IMMERSION = 1000x
PARAFOCAL - CHANGE LENS AND REMAIN FOCUSED
OCULAR MICROMETER - MEASURE OBJECTS
DARK FIELD MICROSCOPY - LIGHT REFLECTS OFF SPECIMEN (SYPHYLIS BACTERIA)
PHASE CONTRAST MICROSCOPY - TO OBSERVE ORGANISMS ALIVE AND UNSTAINED
NOMARSKI MICROSCOPY (D.I.C.) - HAS SHORT DEPTH FIELD & CAN ALMOST PRODUCE
A 3-D
IMAGE
FLUORESCENCE MICROSCOPY - USES ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT, CAN RELEASE LONGER WL
OFF OBJECT
USES FLUORESCENT DYE MOLECULES TO SEE ANTIGENS & ANTIBODIES
CHAPTER 3 cont...
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY - ALLOWED US TO SEE SUBCELULAR STRUCTURES
TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
500,000x MAGNIFICATION
PREPARED W/ HEAVY ELEMENTS TO HELP FORM IMAGE
SHADOW CASTING
FREEZE FRACTURING - ALOWS YOU TO SEE INSIDE CELL
FREEZE-ETCHING (EVAPORATION) - ALOWS ADDITIONAL SURFACES TO
BE EXAMINED
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY - BINNIG & ROHRER (NP)
TECHNIQUES OF LIGHT MICROSCOPY
WET MOUNTS - 2% SOL. OF CARBOXYMETHYL CELLULOSE
HANGING DROP - USED IN DARK FIELD, PETROLEUM JELLY
SMEARS - USES PROCESS OF HEAT FIXATION - PASS SLIDE OVER OPEN FLAME 3 - 4x
1. KILLS THE ORGANISMS
2. ADHERES ORGANISMS TO SLIDE
3. ALLOWS ORGANISMS TO MORE READILY ACCEPT STAINS
PRINCIPLES OF STAINING
NEG. STAINING - USED WHEN CAPSULE RESISTS STAIN
CAPSULE HAS A POLYSACCHARIDE LAYER
STAINS THE BACKGROUND (INDIA INK)
FLAGELLAR STAINING - STAIN W/ FLAGELLA W/ DYE OR METAL (SILVER)
ENDOSPORE STAINING - ENDOSPORE WALLS ARE RESISTANT TO STAIN
SCHAEFFER-FULTON SPORE STAIN
ZIEHL-NEELSEN ACID-FAST STAIN
CHAPTER 4
TABLE 4.1 PROKARYOTES vs EUKARYOTES
CHARACTERISTICS
GENETIC STRUCTURES
PROKARYOTES
EUKARYOTES
GENETIC MATERIAL
CHROMOSOMES
LOCATION OF GENETIC
NUCLEUS
IN SINGLE CHROMOSOMES
IN PAIRED
NUCLEOID
MEMBRANE ENCLOSED
MATERIAL
NUCLEOLUS
ABSENT
PRESENT
HISTONES
ABSENT
PRESENT
EXTRACHROMOSOMAL IN PLASMIDS
IN ORGANELLES
DNA
INTRACELLULAR
STRUCTURES
MIOTIC SPINDLE
DIVISION
PLASMA MEMBRANE
STEROLS
INTERNAL MEMBRANES
MEMBRANE ENCLOSED
ER
RESP. ENZYMES
ABSENT
PRESENT DURING CELL
FLUID, LACKING STEROLS
FLUID W/
ONLY IN PHOTOSYNTHETIC
NUMEROUS
ORGANISMS
ORGANELLES
ABSENT
PRESENT
CELL MEMBRANE
MITOCHONDRIA
CHROMATOPHORES
PRESENT IN PHOTOSYNTHETIC
ABSENT
BACTERIA
CHLOROPALSTS
GOLGI APPARATUS
ABSENT
ABSENT
LYSOSOMES
ABSENT
PEROXISOMES
ABSENT
RIBOSOMES
70S
PRESENT IN SOME
PRESENT
PRESENT
PRESENT
80S IN CYTOPLASM & ER
70S IN ORGANELLES
CYTOSKELETON
ABSENT
PRESENT
EXTRACELLULAR
STRUCTURES
CELL WALL
BOTH FOUND
PEPTIDOGLYCAN
CELLULOSE, CHITIN, or
ON PALNT & FUNGAL CELLS
EXTERNAL LAYER
SHELL IN CERTAIN
CAPSULE OR SLIME LAYER
CONSISTS OF FIBRILS OF
OF FLAGELLIN
PELLICLE, TEST, OR
PROTISTS
FLAGELLA
ARRANGEMENT
ABSENT
PRESENT (9 + 2)
CILIA
ABSENT
PRESENT
PILI
PRESENT (CONJ. PILI)
ABSENT
TABLE 4.1 cont...
CHARACTERISTICS
PROKARYOTES
EUKARYOTES
REPRODUCTIVE PROCESS
CELL DIVISION
BINARY FISSION
SEXUAL CHANGE
MITOSIS & / or MEIOSIS
NOT PART OF REPRODUCTION
MEIOSIS
OF GENETIC MATERIAL
SEXUAL or ASEXUAL
ASEXUAL
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
SPHERICAL - COCCUS
RODLIKE - BACILLUS
SPIRAL - SPIRILLUM
COMMA - VIBRIO
SEXUAL or ASEXUAL
CORKSCREW - SPIROCHETE
ARRANGEMENT
COCCI - DIVIDE IN TWO PLANES, PRODUCES TETRADS
DIPLO - PAIRS
STREPTO - CHAINS
SARCINAE - DIVISION IN 3 PLANES
STAPHYLO -
BACILLI - DIVIDE IN ONE PLANE (CHAIN LIKE)
SPIRAL BACTERIA - GROUP TOGETHER
BACTERIAL CELLS CONSIST OF:
A CELL MEMBRANE, CELL WALL & SOMETIMES ANOTHER LAYER
INTERNAL CYTOPLASM W/ RIBOSOMES, NUC. REG, & SOMETIMES GRANULES
OR VESICLES
EXTERNAL STRUCTURES - CAPSULES, FLAGELLA, PILI
CHAPTER 4 cont...
CELL WALL:
GIVES SHAPE TO CELL
PREVENTS BURSTING DURING OSMOSIS
COMPONENTS OF CELL WALL
PEPTIDOGLYCAN (MUREIN) - SUPPRT NET AROUND BACTERIUM
TEICHOIC ACID - CONTAINS GLYCEROLS, PHOSPHATES, RIBITOL (SUGAR
ALCOHOL)
FURNISHES ATTACHMENT SITES FOR BACTERIOPHAGES
OUTER MEMBRANE - FOUND MAINLY IN GRAM NEG. BACTERIA
PORINS (PROTEINS) FORM CHANNELS THRU OUTER MEMBRANE
OUTER SURFACE HAS ANTIGENS & RECEPTORS
ENDOTOXIN (LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE) - PART OF OUTER MEMBRANE & IDENTIFIES
GRAM NEG. BACTERIA
RELEASED WHEN CELLS ARE DYING
PERIPLASMIC SPACE - GAP, REPRESENTING ACTIVE AREA OF METABOLISM
DISTINGUISHING BACTERIA BY CELL WALLS
GRAM POS. BACTERIA - LACK OUTER MEMBRANE AND PERIPLASMIC SPACE
MUST BE TESTED WITHIN 24 HRS OF CELL GROWTH
BECOME PROTOPLAST WHEN CELL WALL IS DIGESTED (PETIDOGLYCAN
DIGESTED)
GRAM ENG. BACTERIA - BECOME SPHEROPLASTS - WHEN CELL WALL IS DIGESTED
* HAVE CELL MEMBRANE & OUTER MEMBRANE
ACID-FAST BACTERIA - STAIN AS GRAM POS.