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SOCIAL 35AP Review Chapter 1-8
The Later Middle Ages
1300
I. The Bubonic Plague (The Black Death)
A. Large food supply system, however insecure.
1. Heavy annual rains, crops damaged
2. Crop yield declines, farms abandoned
3. Chronic malnutrition, cities overcrowded, poor sanitation
4. Widespread famines, 1315-1317 and 1321
B. The spread of the disease
1. Genoese ships brought the plague to Europe in 1347
2. Followed trade routes, Venice, Genoa
3. Urban congestion, lack of sanitation
4. Bubonic form “Ring around the Rosie”
a. Large glands developed, “Bubos”
b. Disease spread by fleas on Black rats
5. Pneumonic form
a. Transmitted by people – along respiratory tract
6. Septicemic
a. Transmitted by unsanitary conditions / toileting practices / well water
C. Psychological impact
1. The four horsemen / grave diggers with carts “Bring out your dead”
2. “Gods demand” His divine wrath
3. Widespread suffering & death, especially among the poor / rickets afflicted survivors
4. Priests, nuns, monks were especially vulnerable (Assisting the sick)
5. The Flagellants, self-inflicted punishment to avoid God’s punishment
6. Anti-Semitism as jews were accused of poisoning wells (2,000 were hung)
a. Jacob von Konigshofen: The Cremation of the Strasbourg Jews (Sp. pg.302)
D. Population decline
1. Roughly 1/4th of the Western European population had died
2. London cut in half
a. 1348, 2,000 - 7,000 people died weekly
3. 1347 - 1361 24 million had died
E. Social and Economic consequences
1. Positive: Rising per capita wealth, higher wages, labor mobility,
equitable distribution of wealth
2. Negative: Increased use of slavery, profound pessimism exemplified in art
and literature.
II. The Hundred years war (1337 - 1453)
A. Struggle between the French and English over the Duchy of Gascony
B. Early English victories (fought almost entirely in France)
1. Crecy (1346), Poitiers (1356), Agincourt (1415), Advance toward Paris (1419)
2. English development of new weapons, longbow, cannon superior armor for knights.
C. English Kings: Edward III 1327-1377, Richard II -1399, Henry IV -1413
D. French: Phillip VI 1328-1350, John II -1364, Chales V -1380, Charlews VI - 1422
E. Joan of Arc (Maid of Orleans)
1. Significant role and inspiration for the French
2. English ultimately defeated and driven from France, Joan of Arc is captured
3. Condemned as a heretic and burned at the stake (1431)
4. Becomes the second patron saint of France
F. Consequences
1. Disrupted trade, commerce, and economies, French countryside devastated,
Population decline, peasants heavily taxed, economic problems
G. Long Term results
1. English Parliament and nobles gain power, rise of nationalism through propaganda
(Chaucer, Villon)
III. Decline of the Catholic Church’s prestige
A. Church corruption rampant
B. Babylonian captivity (Concordat of Bologna between Leo X, King Francis I)
1. French monarchy controlled the papacy (Catholic church)
2 Ultimately weakens the power of the papacy
3 Popes lived in Avignon, under the influence of French King
4 Pragmatic Sanction (1438) French Catholic church claims independence from Rome
C. The Great Schism (1378-1417)
1. Two popes claimed to be the legitimate leaders of Catholicism
2. Resided in: Rome: Pope Urban VI, France: Clement VII
3. Council of Constance (1414 - 1418) ended the Schism, implemented reforms
a. Election of Martin V
D. Conciliar movement
1. Belief that reform should come through periodic councils of Bishops, Cardinals,
Abbots and Laity.
2. General councils advocated powers superior to the pope
a. Marsiglio Padua, Defensor Pacis, excommunicated for defending councils
b. John Wyclif called for church reform, Lollards
1. Precursor to the reformation
3. Continued by Jan Hus (Hussites) Czech priest, rejected the Popes authority
a. Scripture alone should determine church belief, practice
4. Reunited under Pope Martin V
IV. Social underpinnings of the era
A. Marriage was typically prompted by economic factors, “marriage bouquets & bathing”
B. Divorce did not exist, as marriage was regulated by church
1. Females legally marry at 12, males at 14
C. Craft guilds: merchants and artisans who produced and distributed goods
1. Apprentices, Journeymen, Masters
V. Peasant revolts
A. France (The Jacquerie revolts 1358)
1. A precipitant for revolt: French taxation for the Hundred years war
2. Nobles killed, property destroyed
B. England (1381)
1. Brought about from the lord’s attempt to freeze wages
2. Provoked by rising peasant expectations
3. Precipitant was the re-imposition of the head tax on all adult males
4. Uprising defeated by Richard II
VI. Literature of the period
A. Dante Alighieri, Divine Comedy (Speil. Pg. 318)
1. Pilgrimage through Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise
2. Critical of some church authorities
B. Christine De Pizan The Book of the City of Ladies denounced patriarchal society
C. Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales
The Renaissance
I.
1450
Overview
A. Beginning of the “modern period”
1. History proceeds continuously and transitions over time
2. Constantinople falls to the Ottoman Turks, (1453) Muslims
B. Renaissance “Rebirth” of classic Greece & Rome, termed by Jacob Burkhardt
1. Moves Western civilization from rural agrarian toward a commercial society
2. Capital gives rise to the growth of cities (Economic evolution)
a. Primarily through Italian trade – recovery and revival
3. Rise of secular thought and decline of the papacy
4. Capital (ism) led to the growth of central government
a. Coincides with the decline of feudalism
b. Capital plays increasingly important role / rise of slavery
5. Period of economic, financial, political and cultural renewal
a. Culture: Small mercantile elite
6. Communes and republics are developed
a. Popolo wanted positions in government and taxation equality
b. Signori and oligarchies established seeking political and economic
independence from nobles.
C. Economic evolution
1. Decline of Feudalism (coincides with growth of capitalism)
a. Governmental system which runs society
b. Vassals owed allegiance to a king or lord
c. Lasts longer in Northern Europe
2. Independent city-states emerge as politically independent units (Beginnings of
nationalism)
a. City-states govern all economic activity
1. Condotierre: city-state bureaucracies
2. Signoria: despots, one-man rulers who administered cities
3. Star chamber: a court that applied Roman laws
a. named from stars painted on ceiling
b. Florence: emerged as center of the Renaissance
Social Structure
a. Patricians: The elite, nobles, wealthy merchants, extremely wealthy
merchants
b. Mediocri: middle class merchants and artisans “The middling sort”
c. Popolo Minuto: “Little people” bulk of population (85-90%)
d. Children / labor mortality rates – several children born in hopes a few
would survive
3.
4.
5.
Italy owed much of its wealth to geographic locale
a. Domination from international trade
b. Florentine wool industry
Trade quickly outgrew small business
a. Credit is established
Money lending and banking
a. Italians had a monopoly on lending for 300 years
b. Papacy frowned upon “Usury” Money lending
c. Banking derived from the success of trade
d. Fluid wealth led to land purchasing, reinvestment
e. Guilds: merchants and manufacturers to develop production of goods
II. Intellectual thought
A. Individualism
1. Concerned with the role of the individual and their place in the universe
2. A period of self reflection and full development of one’s potential, desire for success
3. Earmarked by ambition, belief in the power of individual skills and talents
4. Leon Battista Alberti, “Men can do all things if they will”
B. Secularism
1. Emphasis on the material world, “Here and now”
2. Juxtaposed to the teachings of the Papacy
C. Humanism (Humanitas) Latin
1. “New Learning” of Latin classics to learn about human achievements, interests, and
capabilities.
2. Christian perspective to create a more perfect world to civilize mankind
3. Sought to unify pagan, secular and Christian thought
4. Shift from law, medicine & theology to Latin grammar rhetoric and metaphysics
“humanities” or a revival of antiquity
5. Effort to revive the glory of the classic age, a return to original sources of
Christianity
6. move away from scholasticism (Theological debates)
D. Revival of Antiquity “Man was the measure of all things”
1. Study of classic literature
2. Virtu; Essence of being a person through the showing of ones abilities
III. The Arts (quattrocentro, 1400’s / cinquecentro 1500’s)
A. Authors / inventors
1. Pico della Mirandola, Humanist On The Dignity of Man “To be whatever he wills”
2. Francesco Petrarch, (1304-1374) poet, thought predicts Renaissance, mocked
scholatics
3. Boccaccio, Decameron tales of a lustful society, vernacular
4. Nicolo Machiavelli The Prince
a. Epic of political theory. How a ruler may attain, maintain and increase
power
b. “It is much more safe to be feared than to be loved” (not hated)
c. wanted to unify Italy under one ruler, divine right
d. Political cunning, the end justifies the means. (Machiavellian)
e. “New” monarchs influenced by Machiavellian thought
6. Monarchs exercised considerable authority
7. Castigilione’s The Book of the Courtier (1518)
a. Describes the “Renaissance man” paint, sing, athletic, military
b. Influenced social conduct
8. Johann Gutenberg (et al.) Invention of moveable type
a. Gutenberg Bible, Transformed population of Europe
b. Brought about increased literacy of laypeople
c. Rise in propaganda
9. Marsilio Ficino, Translation of works of Plato
10. Leonardo Bruni, History of the Florentine People
11. St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome, began by pope Julius II
B. Artists (Baroque style: ornamentation) (Disdain for medieval art, often secular themes)
1. Michelangelo (Il Divino-the divine one) “David” “Pieta” “Moses” Sistine chapel*
2. Leonardo da Vinci “The last supper” “Mona Lisa”
3. Sandro Botticelli, “The Birth of Venus” “Primavera”
4. Brunelleschi, Francesca, the development of perspective in art
5. Donatello: revived the classical figure, Bronze David
6. Raphael: “The school of Athens”
C. The role of women during the renaissance
1. Upper-class status decline
2. Increase in infanticide and child abandonment
3. Own but not sell land, several girls to convent
IV. Northern Renaissance (Low countries, Germany, France, Spain, England)
A. Influenced by the Italian Renaissance, but more religious
1. Focus of societal reform, driven primarily by Christian humanists
2. Develop an ethical way of life
3. Erasmus, Adages, In Praise of Folly (1509) “Christian (Dutch) humanist”
a. Education is the means to reform / first attempt at church reform
b. Christianity is an inner attitude of the heart (spirit)
c. Much of work banned by papal Index of prohibited books (handout)
d. Handbook of the Christian Soldier de-emphasized the sacraments
4. Thomas More, Utopia (1516) describes an ideal society
5. Thomas a Kempis, The Imitation of Christ inner piety more important than dogma
B. Art and literature were more religious in the North
1. Van Eyck, Bosch, Brughel, Rembrandt, Durer
V. The end of the Renaissance
A. City-states enter a period of fighting, economic decline, loss of trading routes
1. Peace of Lodi (1454) Signed by Florence, Milan, Venice (Republic)
2. Established political order between differing city-states
B. Battles between France and Spain fought on Italian peninsula
1. 1494 Charles VIII expels Medici (1512 return) Louis XII, League of Cambrai
2. Habsburg – Valois power struggle ensues
C. Exploration and colonization of the Americas
1. Shifts economic balance toward the Atlantic (France, Spain, England)
D. 1512 The Medici overthrow Florentine republic, Machiavelli forced into exile
E. Foreign armies (French, Charles VIII) conquered Italian city-states, continual warfare
1. Spain sacked Rome under Charles I (1527)
F. Many humanists migrate North of the Alps (Central & Northern Europe)
G. Italy would not unify until 1870, republicans pressured despots
VI. Politics
A. Spain
1.
Marriage of Isabella of Castille and Ferdinand of Aragon
a. “New Monarchs” Monarchy links classes of people to territory, Royal authority
2. Reconquista: wars of Northern Christian kingdoms to control peninsula
a. 1492 expulsion of Jews from Spain
3. Jews and Arabs conversion or expulsion
4. Inquisition (1478)
a. Isabella of Castille / Ferdinand of Aragon
b. Use of torture for confession of sins and conversion of Jews / Muslims
c. Tomas De Torquemada
d. Grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella (Charles I) Inherited vast lands 1516
5. Intended to Christianize Spain
B. England (and the progression of Tudors)
1. War of the Roses (England, 1455-1471)
a. Civil war between the houses of York (White) and Landcaster (Red)
b. Parliament continues to consolidate and legitimize power.
c. Tudors garnish support from the upper middle class
d. Richard III (Lionhearted) killed at Bosworth field
e. Henry VII first Tudor to rule England
1. Used star chamber to asses fines and penalties for the crown
C. France
1. Charles VII increased the power of the state over the influence of the church
2. Charles VIII invaded Italian peninsula, victorious in Northern Italy
3. French monarchy strengthened under Louis XI “ the spider king”
a. Concordat of Bologna: Institutionalized French kings control over clergy
1. Pope Leo X and King Francis I, end pragmatic sanction of Bourges
2. compromise that assisted in keeping France Catholic, even into the
reformation
3. In turn, France would recognize popes superiority over church
councils
D. Holy Roman Empire controlled by Habsburg dynasty (Maximillian I)
VII. Renaissance families
A. Medici (Cosimo de’)
Florence
1. Controlled Florentine politics
2. Wealth gained from banking and textile industry
3. Cosimo centralized power by banishing members of rival families
4. Manipulated and controlled Gov’t offices
B. Lorenzo de Medici (The magnificent) Cosimo’s grandson
1. Pazzi incident: Attempted murder in Mass (Manchester, Lit by fire pg. 44)
2. Extended families banking interests
3. Considerable influence with the pope in Rome
4. Catherine Medici married to extend her (Children’s) political interests
C. Council of seventy
1. Elected committees for domestic and foreign affairs
D. Sforza family
Milan
1. Played off rivalries between other families of Milan
2. Ousted the Visconti family
E. Fuggers (Jacok)
1. Mining industry, silver, copper (Manchester, Lit by Fire pg. 48-49)
2. Most influencial in Spain
Reformation
1517
I. Background
A. Decline of the medieval church
1. Great Schism, Concilliar movement
2. Babylonian captivity
3. Scholasticism: deduced the existence of God from proof
a. (St.) Thomas Aquinas
4. William of Occam
a. Mankind could not understand God through reason
b. “Nominalists” rejected papal authority, church hierarchy
5. Hussites (Jan Hus) gained papal dispensation for Utraquist
a. Communion in both bread and wine
b. Led revolt, called before council of Constance, to resolve great Schism
c. Condemned as a heretic, burnt at the stake
B. New religious philosophy and organizations develop
1. Attempted church reforms prior to 1517 failed
2. Papacy seems more important than Christ
II. Individuals of the reformation
A. Martin Luther
“Faith Alone”
1. Religious childhood, studied theology “Occam”
2. Father wanted Martin Luther to study law
3. Lightning storm as a conversion experience, Augustinian monk
4. Earned doctorate in theology
5. Wanted a church reform, not a separation from Catholicism
a. Salvation through “faith alone” “only with faith can you be saved”
b. “The righteous shall live by Gods grace”
c. Major conflict: Faith vs. good works
d. Authority in the Bible not the Papacy
6. 95 Thesis (Oct. 31, 1517) Wittenberg castle / mailed to superior (Spiel. pg. 369)
a. Reform spurred by the practice of purchasing indulgences and church
positions (Simony) Absenteeism (neglecting papal duties, Pluralism (holding
several positions)
1. First emerged during the Crusades
2. Church has authority to remit penalties for sin, penance
3. Purchase of indulgences one may forgo repentance (pg. 97, Mman)
4. Sent to monks, translated into German / Leipzig debate (1519)
5. Leo X, St. Peter’s Basilica, indulgences sold to repay Fuggers
6. Condemned Catholic practice of Eucharist
7. Seven sacraments (Baptism, Confirmation, Communion, Penance,
Holy Orders-Ordination, Marriage, Unction) reduced to two (Baptism
and Communion).
b. Luther naive, subsequently threatened the income of the church
c. Pope Leo X issues statement (bull) excommunicating Luther (1520)
1. recant or be excommunicated
2. Luther burns letter
d. Diet (assembly) of Worms 1521
1. “I am bound by the scriptures…Here I stand alone”
2. Edict of Worms: Luther under “ban of empire”
3. Forbade him from preaching, declared a heretic
4. Leo X and Charles V signed
7. 1521 Luther has a large following
a. On Christian Liberty
8. The Twelve Articles
a. A complaint that nobles seized common lands and imposed rents
b. End to double taxation (double taxation)
c. Luther was cited
9. Peasant uprising (1525)
a. An Admonition to Peace Luthers attempt to prevent rebellion
b. 1525 Peasant revolts
1. 75 thousand peasants killed
2. Economic problems
3. Restrictions on independence
4. Hunting and fishing priviledges
c. Luther seems to contradict himself
d. Against the murderous, Thieving hoards of the Peasants
e. “Peasants should respect authority”
f. “Luther asks lords to “stab, smite and slay peasants”
B. John Calvin
“Predestination”
1. Not educated by piety
2. Studied theology, University of Paris, humanist with judicial training
3. Calvin impressed by Luther’s ideas
4. Calvin believed that he was selected by God to reform the church
a. Institutes of the Christian Religion
1. Predestination, salvation was a gift from God
a. God determined saved from damned
b. Nothing that individuals can do
5. “Faith brings about good works”
a. No visible evidence of who is saved
b. Hard work is rewarded (bolstered Calvinism)
6. Thoughts on church and state
a. Stern & militant stance / Rejection of Medieval church practices
C. Anabaptists “To baptize again”
1. Belief in baptism for adults, pacifists, separation of church and state
2. Pacifists, “left wing of the reformation” / held no political offices
3. Women allowed into the ministry / polygamy
4. “Third baptism”, Anabaptists persecuted by drowning
5. Arguably, most unaccepted / radical of religious sects
D. William Tyndale (England, 1494-1536)
1. Printing of the New Testament
2. Sets the stage for Protestant reform in England
E. Ulrich Zwingli
1. Swiss humanist brought reformation to Switzerland
2. Reformed church of Zurich / strongly influenced by Zwingli
3. Ulrich Zwingli: Zurich (Sacramentarian: denied all sacraments)
4. Colloquy of Marburg, sought to unify Protestant theology (failed)
F. Henry VIII (King in 1509)
1. Writes: Defense of the Seven Sacraments “Defender of the Faith”
2. “King’s great matter” Wanted marriage to 1. Catherine of Aragon annulled
(Daughter, Mary)
3. Used Parliament to remove the English church from papal control
a. Believed cases were King’s, not the Popes authority (Clement VII)
b. Thomas Cranmer replaces Cardinal Thomas Wolsey
1. Wolsey blamed for losing case and dismissed
c. Henry orders Thomas More executed for not supporting new order
4. Act of Supremacy: Henry becomes head of the Church of England (Anglican)
a. Ten Articles: affirmed Lutheran theology (faith alone) rejected purgatory
5. Act in Restraint of Appeals: denied popes authority (Treason Act)
6. Act of Succession: required loyalty oath of all subjects
7. 2. Anne Boleyn gives birth to Elizabeth. Beheaded for adultery (1536)
8. 3. Jane Seymour (died in childbirth) gave Henry an heir to throne, (Edward VI)
9. Thomas Cromwell, Chief minister
a. Dissolved monasteries and confiscated lands
b. Executed over issue of religious reform
9. 4. “Another” Anne of Cleves (Flemish Mare), never consummated / annulled
10. 5. Catherine Howard, beheaded after 18 months for adultery
11. 6. Catherine Parr, outlived Henry
12. Six Articles passed (1539) Reaffirms many Catholic sacraments
13. Successors to Henry’s throne (Tudor)
a. Edward VI, Strong Protestant beliefs, adopted Calvinism
1. Ruled 1547-1553, son of Jane Seymour, age 9 when took throne
b. Mary Tudor, Daughter of Catherine of Aragon (1553-1558)
1. Attempted movement to return England to Catholicism
2. Married Phillip II of Spain
3. “Bloody Mary” forceable return of subjects to Catholicism
a. burned protestants
c. Elizabeth I, (Tudor) conformity to the church of England
1. Writes the Thirty-nine articles
2. Restored protestant beliefs
a. Puritans: those who would “purify” protestant beliefs of
Catholic practices
G. The Hapsburg dynasty
1. Charles V
a. Inheritance of diverse territory
b. Defended Catholicism
c. Hapsburg-Valois wars (1521 - 1555)
1. Advanced Protestantism, however fragmented Germany
2. Four total wars, against Francis I of France
3. Attempt to thwart growing ottoman turk empire
4. Schmalkaldic league – Protestant princes allied with Henry II (Fra.)
d. Peace of Augsburg 1555
1. Ends war between Charles V and Protestant German states
2. Princes could determine territorial religion
3. Compromise: religion of the ruler of each state would be religion of
state, officially Catholic church recognizes Lutheranism
III. Counter reformation (External) / Catholic reformation (Internal)
A. Papacy attempted to reform by creating religious interest in Catholicism
1. A reaction to the Protestant reforms
2. The sacking of Rome (1520)
3. Council of Trent (1545 -1563)
a. Pope Paul III
1. Originally called by pope to unify Christianity
a. first, second session failed (wine, dancing)
2. Third session
a. Attempt to oppress Protestant theology
b. Belief in “faith alone” denied, “faith and good works”
c. Tridentine decrees forbade sale of indulgences
d. Only church could interpret scriptures
3. Catholics emerged reinvigorated to combat Protestants
4. Rejected Lutheran and Calvinist theology
B. New religious orders
1. The Jesuits (society of Jesus)
a. Founded by Ignatius of Loyola The Spiritual Exercises (Spiel. pg. 389)
b. Goal: “To help souls”
c. Jesuit schools adopted humanist curriculum / missionary aspect
d. Militarily organized “Give me your child, you can have the man”
e. “The rule of god” “Absolute obedience to the pope”
2. The Congregation of the Holy Office
a. Established by Pope Paul III
b. Authority over all Catholics to arrest, imprison and execute
c. Published Index of Prohibited Books
IV. Results of the Reformation
A. Skepticism toward papal power and Catholicism,
B. Protestants develop their own rigid orthodox
1. Originally what made Luther split with the church
C. Destroyed unity of Europe as an holistic Christian society
D. Catholic vs. Protestant “style” (chalices and churches)
V. Differences between Catholicism and Protestantism
A. Protestants
1. Stress the role of the bible
2. a priesthood of all believers
3. Denied some or all of the Catholic sacraments
B. Catholics
1. Retained hierarchy of church and positions
2. Authority of the Pope asserted
3. Belief in good works and faith
Expansion and Religious wars
1560
I. Background
A. Religious affiliation is used to rationalize war
II. French Wars of Religion (1562-1598) series of nine wars
A. Habsburg-Valois wars (1562) Duke of Guise massacred Huegenots
1. Spain emerges victorious and becomes more powerful
2. Primarily fought in Italy
3. Extensive financing of the war, develops as a precondition to upheaval
a. Sales of publi offices: Tax exempt class, “Nobility of the robe”
b. Concordat of Bologna: Treaty with the papacy
1. Francis I agrees to papal supremacy over councils
2. French monarchy can now appoint church positions
3. Establishes Catholicism in France
4. Ends dynastic conflicts and begins wars based on theology
5. Treaty of Chateau-Cambresis, ends Habsburg-Valois wars
6. Creates a polarization with Huguenots
7. Precipitants
a. Calvinists attacks on Catholic churches, statues, windows, etc.
b. Henry III establishes the Catholic league
c. Saint Bartholomew’s Day massacre (1572) Paris, France
1. Marriage of Henry of Navarre, Margaret of Valois
2. Henry of Guise had Gaspard de Coligny attacked Huguenot leaders
3. Parisian Huguenots killed (3,000), also in Lyons, Orleans, Meaux
4. Approx. 20,000 total
B. War of the Three Henrys
1. Henry of Guise (Cath) Henry of Navarre (Calvin.) King Henry III (Cath.)
2. Results
a. Politiques: a sect of people wanting to restore a strong monarchy
b. Henry of Guise, King Henry III are assassinated,
c. Henry of Navarre (Henry IV) now on the throne
1. “Paris is worth a mass” End of Catholic league and conflict,
converts to Catholicism
2. Edict on Nantes (1598) sanctioned Huguenots religious toleration
3. Freedom to worship, assemble, public offices
4. Precursor to French Absolutism
III. Dutch revolt
(Spanish Netherlands)
A. Phillip II (Spain) inherited lands from Charles V (Habsburg) who abdicated the throne
1. Seventeen provinces, Calvinism appealed to the middle classes of dutch
2. Phillip II appoints Margaret to end protestant sects in Netherlands (Calvinist refuge)
a. Spain attempted to impose Inquisition and make Europe Catholic
3. Calvinists rioted against Phillip II, led by William of Orange
4. Duke of Alva “Council of Blood” sent to execute calvinists, later removed
5. Alexander Farnese sent to end revolt
6. Result: Pacification of Ghent
a. Union of Utrect; Protestant. Union of Arras: Catholic
7. Elizabeth I defends the Prot. cause
B. Spanish Armada defeated by the English fleet (1588)
1. One of the most decisive victories in naval warfare
2. Prevents Phillip II (married Mary) from war with England and defeating the Dutch
IV. Thirty Years War (1618-1648) (BDSF) Protestants fight Catholics across Europe
A. Background
1. Lutheran princes form the Protestant Union (1608)
2. Catholic league (1609) formed to counter the Prot. alliance at Palatinate
3. Bourbons of France and Habsburgs of Austria both supported Catholicism
B. Bohemian period (1618-1625)
1. Civil war between Prot. Union and Catholic league
2. Ferdinand I attempts to revoke Protestant rights
3. Ferdinand’s officials thrown from castle window: “Defenestration of Prague” (1618)
4. Forcible conversions and Jesuits convert Bohemia to Catholicism
5. Battle of White Mountain: Bohemia made Catholic / Frederick V into exile (Holland)
C. Danish period (1625-1629)
1. King Christian IV of Denmark (Lutheran) led army into northern Germany
2. Albert of Wallenstein victorious (Under Ferdinand II)
3. Edict of Restitution (1629) restored Catholic territories lost to Protestants
4. Outlawed Calvinism, led to Swedish involvement
D. Swedish period (1630-1635)
1. Gustavus Adolphus (Lutheran) of Sweden victorious
a. Sweden becomes a strong European power
2. Denmark, Poland, Finland under Swedish control
3. Ferdinand and Wallenstein assassinated.
4. Ended Habsburg hopes of German unification. Peace of Prague
E. French (International or Franco-Swedish) period (1635-1648)
1. Cardinal Richelieu (France) declares war on Spain & Austrian Habsburgs
2. Peace of Westphalia (1648)
1. Reasserted Peace of Augsburg but recognized Calvinism
2. Recognized power and authority of German princes determine own religion
3. Influence of Holy Roman Empire diminished
a. 300 independent German states recognized
4. Swiss confederation and Netherlands (Dutch) independence established
5. Allowed French influence in German affairs of state
6. Treaty of Munster, recognized Dutch independence, remained Hapsburg
3. Treaty of Pyrenees (1659) Spanish Netherlands to France, Demise of Spanish power
F. Results
1. Roughly 1/3 German population killed, France arguably the “winner”
2. Proved to be disastrous for German economy, Eastern Germany enserfed
3. Refugees and the spread of disease
4. Loss of agricultural land, and labor (Serfs) Period of peasant revolts
V. England
A. Elizabeth I
1. “neither a good protestant, nor papist” John Knox
2. Act of uniformity – Book of common Prayer
3. Challenged by cousin Mary queen of Scots
a. Mary fled to England, beheaded from plot to assassinate Elizabeth
4. Conflict with Spanish Economic interests / shipping
a. Phillip II prepared Spanish Armada to attack England
b. Pope offered financial support
c. Spanish armada defeated
VI. Explorations
A. Background
1. Motives include the further growth of Christianity
2. Desire for greater material wealth (economic) “God, Glory and Gold”
3. Nations under control of strong monarchies
4. Development of colonies, rivalries develop over trade and territory
B. Portugal
1. Henry “The Navigator” establishes navigation and exploration school at Sagres
2.
3.
C. Spain
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Early leaders in expansion overseas, mounted canons on ships
Controls transport of gold / slave trade / ivory / spice
Columbus: discoveries in the new world
Vasco da Gama: Reached India
Magellan: Cape horn, Cape of good hope / first known circumnavigation of Earth
John Cabot: Sighted Newfoundland
Hernan Cortez: Landed on coast of Mexico
a. Established So. American colonies / conquistadors destroyed Aztec empire
D. Netherlands, France, England (colonize N. America)
1. Dutch East India Company established
a. Fostered commercial imperialism
2. France and England primarily interested in colonization
a. English colonies: 1607, Jamestown 1620 Mass. Bay
b. Dutch: 1625 New Amsterdam
VI. Women
A. Protestants saw marriage as a contract
B. Catholics as a sacramental union
C. Worked in several diverse occupations
D. Subsistence agriculture
E. Witches
1. Undiagnosed illness / misfortunes attributed to witchcraft
2. Malleus Maleficarum / Misogyny (hatred of women especially the elderly)
3. Provided a legal basis for execution of women
VII. Arts and Literature
A. Literature
1. Montaigne: Essay’s “Know thyself”
a. Use self-knowledge to understand the world
b. Middle-way: moderation and toleration
2. Elizabethan and Jacobean
a. Shakespeare reflects ideas of classical culture, humanism, individualism
b. King James version of the Bible
B. Art & Music
1. Peter Paul Rubens, typified baroque painting The Landing of Marie de Medeci
2. Baroque- Combine classics of Renaissance and religion of reformation – ornate style
3. Music: Johann Sebastian Bach, concertos and cantatas
The rise of Absolutism
1600
I. Absolutism (Absolute monarchy)
A. Sovereignty is given to the monarch
1. Rule by “divine right” responsible to God- Bishop Jacques Boussuet
2. Politics drawn from Holy Scripture
3. Able to consolidate power within their territories
4. Coincides with the dissolution of Feudalism
5. Often “reform” used only to appease others (did not set limits on power)
B. France and warfare
1. Henry IV issues the Edict of Nantes (1598) “Law of Concord”
a. protecting Huguenots by allowing religious tolerance
b. “Paulette” fee paid to ensure familial line to royal offices
c. Duke of Sully: began efforts of Mercantilism
2. Cardinal Richelieu (chief Minister) casts influence over reign of Louis XIII
a. worked to decrease the power of the French nobility
b. organized France into 32 districts (Generalities)
4.
5.
6.
a.
b.
c.
7.
8.
9.
1. appointed royal Intendants to enforce royal orders
2. power of the French state grew with power of Intendants
c. municipal governments are now part of the nation
d. sought to destroy Hapsburg territories
e. Political Testament wealth determines governments policy
Louis XIV “Sun King” (quintessential absolute monarch)
a. longest reign in European history (L’etat c’est moi) “I am the state”
b. grew up as a monarch, gaining political savvy
c. Mazarin- (Richelieu’s successor)
1. continued Richelieu’s policies
2. conflicts of the Fronde solidified Louis XIV’s belief in absolute
monarchy
3. Fronde: (1648-1653) Nobles attempt to regain influence
XIII & lower taxes. (slingshot) over Mazarin
d. able to solidify control over the nobility (One king, one law, one faith)
1. persecuted Jansenists (Cornelius Jansen)
a. withdraw from society given that it is sinful
2. Against Jesuits
e. royal court at Versailles
f. Jean-Baptiste Colbert: Controller General of Finances
1. Mercantilism- Decrease imports/ Increase exports
a. Economic regulations to increase the power of the state
b. Worked to create advantages through foreign trade
c. Colonies exist for the mother country
d. Economic WAR.. High tariffs on Foreign goods
2. Created merchant marine for trade purposes
3. Pronounced increase in textile and new industries
4. Sought self-sufficiency of France
5. Improved transportation system
g. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685)
1. Huguenots forced to renounce faith, churches destroyed
2. Huguenot craftsmen subsequently emigrate (England 200,000)
3. Religious pluralism not particularly tolerated in France
h. Several wars led to the depletion of capital and French economy
1. William of Orange becomes king of England
a. Joins with Hapsburgs “League of Augsburg”
War of Devolution (1667-1668) (First Dutch war)
a. Louis XIV claims Spanish Neth. after death of Phillip IV
b. Triple alliance formed: England, Holland, Sweden
Second Dutch war (1672-1678)
France invades Holland
Dutch open dikes and flood land
Peace of Nijmegan grants all land back to Holland
Invasion of Spanish Netherlands by France (1683)
a. France occupies Luxembourg and Lorraine
b. League of Augsburg formed in response: Holy Roman Empire, Holland,
Spain, Sweden, Palatinate, Saxony, et. al.
War of the League of Augsburg (1689-1697)
a. France battles England and Holland on Rhine, low countries, Italy.
b. Treaty of Ryswick (1697) captured territories returned
c. French control of Alsace and Strasbourg
War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713)
a. In dispute: French control (throne) of the Spanish Neth.
b. Grand Alliance: English, Dutch, Austrians, Prussians
1. Defeated France
2. Support Charles VI, oppose Phillip of Anjou for Spanish throne
3. Battle of Blenheim prevents France from dominating Europe- British
Victory.
4. French and Spanish drive allies from Spain: Phillip put on the
throne
c. Peace of Utrecht (1713)
1. Balance of power issues, Phillip V crowned king
2. Spain ceases as power, Span. Neth. To Hapsburgs
3. Expands British Empire in New World/ Naval Power
4. Ends Louis XIV expansionist policies
10. War of Austrian succession (1740-1748)
a. Frederick the great invades Silesia
b. England sides with Hapsburgs against Prussia, Bavaria, France and Spain
c. Prussia retains Silesia and becomes powerful
d. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, France loses burgundy, gains twelve border
towns.
11. Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)- French and Indian War.
a. Austria attempts to regain Silesia with help from France and Russia
b. British fund Prussia most conflicts in North America
c. Treaty of Paris (1763) France loses all New World possessions to Britain
12. Trends
a. French neo- “classicism”
1. Painting: Poussin, Rape of the Sabine Women, Burial of Phocian
2. Literature: Moliere, The Bourgeois Gentleman, Tartuffe (handout)
3. Jean Racine, Andromaque, Berenice, Iphigenie, Phedre
4. Typically follows style of Greek and Roman classes/ Trajedies.
b. Jansenists: Followed theology of Cornelius Jansen
1. Against Jesuits
2. One should withdraw from the world, because it is sinful
C. Spain
1. Phillip II
a. Built Escorial palace, outside of Madrid
b. Expanded the Spanish empire including American colonies
2. The decline of Spanish power
a. small middle class, leads to a polarization of classes
b. Prominent inflation and heavy taxation give rise to fiscal problems
c. succession of weak political leaders
d. Participation in the Thirty-Years War
e. defeat of the Spanish armada
f. French-Spanish wars
1. Spanish defeated at Rocroi
2. Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) yields territories to France
2. Charles II, dies childless, leads to war of Spanish Succession
3. Phillip V (1700-1746)
a. Modernizes Spanish army, agriculture
4. Ferdinand VI (r1746-1759)
5. Charles III (1759-1788)
a. Continues reforms, devout Catholic, eliminates laws restricting trade
7. Literature
a. Miguel de Cervantes Don Quixote
1. Quixotic “Idealistic but impractical”
II. Constitutionalism
A. Represents a limited government between the rights of the subjects and Gov’t. authority
B. England (Stuart England)
1. Elizabeth I (Tudor)
a. Mary Stuart (Queen of Scots) forced to abdicate her throne in 1568
b. Elizabeth feared Mary (Catholic) would attain the English throne
1. Spanish and French plot to depose her 1583
2. Treaty of Berwick (1586) defensive alliance with Scotland
3. Elizabeth imprisons Mary (executed in 1587)
c. English forces loyal to Elizabeth defeat Scottish armies
d. 39 Articles, Relations between church and state
d. Excommunicated by Pius V in 1570
e. Elizabeth dies on March 24, 1603 in her forty-fifth year of reign
2. James VI (Stuart) succeeds Elizabeth I
a. Advocate of “divine right”
b. Power vacuum develops between the monarchy and Parliament
3. Charles I (Stuart)
a. William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury
1. “Court of high commission” sought unity of church services
b. Inherited both the English and Scottish thrones at fathers death (James I)
c. Levies “Ship tax” (coastal defense tax) on inland countries
(tonnage & poundage)
d. “Long Parliament”(20 yrs) enacts legislation to limit power of the monarchy
e. Commons impeached Laud and Earl of Strafford
f. abolished “Court of high commission”
d. adds to the power vacuum
4. English Civil War (1642-1649) English Revolution
a. Preconditions include English exploitation of Irish/ Line of Stuart Kings
b. Charles I inherits English, Scottish thrones, imposes money demands from
both houses of Parliament
c. Petition of Right (1628) King was to accept:
1. No loan or tax without parliamentary consent, Marshall Law in
Peacetime
2. Due process, soldiers could not be housed in private homes
d. King dissolves Parliament (1629-1640)
e. Religious persecution/ Ship money: Tax
f. Short Parliament King reconvenes Parliament to levy taxes to pay for
Scottish war. When given list of grievances, dissolves Parliament
g. Scots invade, develop a treaty
h. Long Parliament (1640-1660)
1. King reconvenes Parliament to raise money, army
2. Wentworth executed for treason
i. Irish rebellion (Catholics) killing of Protestants
j. English Civil war formally begins (1662)
1. Charles orders impeachment of Puritans in house of commons
2. Country divided: North and West with King, East and South:
Parliament, Navy support Parliament
k. Early stages of the War
1. Initial Parliament, under Cromwell (New Model Army)
2. Over who held sovereignty: King (Cavaliers) or
Parliament (Roundheads)
3. Parliament victorious, Charles I captured 1646
4. Abolishes Kngship, Charles executed, and house of lords
5. “Rump” parliament
6. A commonwealth declared (1649-1659)
l. Oliver Cromwell
1. Develops a military dictatorship, fighting in Ireland, Scots led by
Charles II defeated, flees to France.
2.
Levellers: all men should vote connected with land ownership. Free
speech/ democratic government
3. Diggers: Denied Parliament spoke for Englishmen, private owned
land.
4. The Protectorate (1653-1659)
a. Cromwell dissolves Parliament (Cromwell: “Lord Protector”)
5. Puritan-militaristic rule ends with Cromwells death (1658)
m. The Restoration: desire to restore monarchy (1660-1688) and house of Loros
1. Charles II (1661) crowned king, dies in 1685
a. Agrees to abide by decisions of Parliament
n. Act of Uniformity (1662) All ministers must use Anglican book of common
prayer.
1. Parliament enacts the Test Act (1673)
a. Banned Catholics from royal offices/ only Anglican
b. Supercedes Clarendon codes
2. Habeas Corpus Act (1679) right to rapid trial
5. The “Glorious Revolution” 1688-1689
a. Final stage in the struggle for “divine right” monarchy in England
1. Fear that a Catholic dynasty would be created under James II
b. William (of Orange) and Mary (of Holland) accept throne and supremacy of
Parliament. Bloodless
c. The king now rules with consent of the governed
d. Bill of rights developed (1689)
1. King could not be Roman Catholic
2. Taxation without Parliamentary consent became illegal
3. Trial by jury, excessive bail and unusual punishments banned
5. Elections to Parliament
e. Toleration Act (1689) Puritan Dissenters permitted public worship
6. Classical Liberal Philosophers
a. John Locke, Second Treatise of Civil Government. (Spiel. 451)
1. Defending the principles of life, liberty, property
2. Governments overstepping their power needs to be dissolved
b. Edmund Burke, (1729-1797)
1. Thoughts On the Cause of Present Discontents “national interest”
2. Reflections on the Revolution in France
a. Enlightened rationalism threatens traditional ruling “elite”
c. Thomas Hobbes
1. England could only be saved by a powerful state, a “Leviathan”
desire to relinquish individual freedom. (Spiel. 451)
2. Defended absolutism; people would only obey if afraid of the
consequences. Surrender their rights in return for protection.
3. Opposed to theories of Locke, similar to Rousseau.
E. Netherlands “Dutch Golden Age”
1. Peace of Westphalia, 1648 Treaty of Munster recognize the Republic of United
Provinces
a. Peace of Westphalia ends eighty years of war with Spain
2. Commercial prosperity developed through fishing industry ship building and trade
a. Enables political success to develop/Highest per capita income (Amsterdam)
b. Dutch East and West Indian Companies develops several trade routes/ Large
capacity ships- Fluyt
c. Amsterdam Public Bank, economy flourishes- People migrate to Amster.
d. Netherlands represented areas of religious toleration
3. Dutch art
a. Rembrandt, Jan Steen, Cuyp, Van Goyen, Vermeer
b. Represented by the interplay of light and shadow
4. Religious toleration is noteworthy
5. Economic decline
a. Wars with England and France weaken economy (1670’s)
1. Ends in 1688 accession of William and Mary to English throne
b. War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714)
1. England emerges solidified
Eastern European Absolutism
I.
Background
A. Serfdom revived, and oppressive actions of lords secured subjugation
1. laws to control serfs were passed
2. Lords seized peasant lands
3. Serfdom rises in the East, diminishes in the West
4. These actions leads to increased political power of Lords
II. Austria and Prussia
A. Austria (Hapsburg monarchy)
1. determined to end Protestantism
2. defended Catholicism in the Thirty Years’ War
3. Unified their territorial reign and increased serfdom
4. Ottoman Turks ultimately defeated and Hapsburgs increased territorial influence
5. Three Habsburg states
a. Austria, Bohemia, Hungary
6. Leopold I (1658-1705)
a. Patron of arts, Catholic, drove Turkish army away from Austria
7. Charles VI (1711-1740) attempt to pass all Habsburg territories to a single heir
a. Giving rise to Absolutism
b. Opposed by Hungarian nobility
1. Primarily Protestant, reacted harshly against Catholicism
2. Wanted to maintain local independence and control
8. Maria Theresa (1740-1780)
a. Increased army, centralized government
9. Joseph II (1765-1790)
a. Expanded state schools, granted religious tolerance
B. Prussia (Hohenzollern family)
1. Hohenzollern family came into power following the Thirty Years’ War
2. Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg (The Great Elector)
a. Attempt to unify his territories under absolute rule
b. Brandenburg, Prussia, and territories in the Rhine
c. Dominated by the “Junkers” (nobility and land owning class)
d. Taxation and military rule established
3. Frederick I
a. Founds universities, encourages intellectuals to settle in Prussia
4. Frederick William I (The Soldiers’ King)
a. Attained Absolutism under military power
b. Established one of the most efficient armies in Europe
c. Power given to the Junkers as military officers
4. Frederick II (The Ostentatious) The Great
a. Aided Catholicism in war of Spanish Succession
III. Russia (Muscovoy)
A. Muscovite princes end rule of the Khan and Mongols
1. Ivan III (1462-1505)
a. consolidated territories surrounding Moscow (Prince of Moscow)
b. Termed the Tsar (Slavic for Caesar) Absolutism established
c. became leader of Orthodox Christianity
d. power struggle with Russian nobles (Boyars)
2. Ivan IV (1533-1584) “The Terrible”
a. Dismissed advisors and proclaimed himself Tsar (Autocracy)
b. Mother was poisoned as a child, married Anastasia Romanov
c. Fought to attain remaining Mongol territories
d. Wars and purges depleted population
e. Killed own son
1. “Cossacks” peasants escaping reign of Ivan IV and formed armies
a. Boyars were killed to consolidate power
b. Ivan and heir Theodore die “Time of troubles”
1. Cossacks led by Ivan Bolotnikov returned killing nobles and recruiting
peasants.
a. Duma- Council of Boyars
b. Zemsky Sobor- Landed Assembly
2. Russian nobles elected Michael Romanov as Tsar (1613)
3. Russian Orthodox church divided
4. Cossack uprisings again under reign of Alexis
3. Romanov’s elected by general assembly as czars
4. Peter the Great
a. Established own system of Absolute monarchy, builds St. Petersburg (spiel. 439)
b. Alliance with Austria and Poland against the Ottoman Turks
c. Great Northern War, Ultimately Charles XII (Sweden) defeated
d. Created modern army with vast taxation- First Russian Navy
e. Employed foreign advisors with ideas learned in Western Europe (Westernize)
f. Sets tone for rule of Catherine the Great
IV. Sweden (1640-1650)
A. King Charles XI
1. Instituted Absolute rule in Sweden
2. Followed by son Charles XII killed in battle in Norway (The Great Northern War)
a. Dynastic expansion included Denmark, Norway, Estonia, Lithuania
3. Parliament established, eventually overthrown by King Gustavus III/ Defeated by Peter Great/
Russia
V. Art in Eastern Europe “Baroque”
A. Primarily reflected in architecture
1. To convey the power of absolute monarchs
2. St. Petersburg developed under Peter the Great
a. to develop a “modern” capital
b. Bartolomeo Rastrelli
c. by 1780’s St. Petersburg was one of the largest cities in Europe
Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment
I.
Background
A. General intellectual shift
B. logic and mathematics are utilized to foster “the age of light”
C. Secular humanism fosters the polarization of church vs. State
1600
D. New religious thought, nothing is accepted by “faith alone”
II. Scientific Revolution
A. Preconditions to the scientific revolution
1. Established University systems develops scholars
2. Inquiry developed from Renaissance humanism
3. Departure from Medieval theory
B. Individuals of Science
1. Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
a. English politician, rejected Copernicus and Kepler
b. experimental approach to theory
c. Empirical method, inductive reasoning
d. Empiricism: examination of Phenomena
2. Rene Descartes (refined the “scientific method”)
a. Deductive reasoning based on observation, analytic geometry
b. Focus on Physical (matter) and Spiritual (mind) (Cartesian dualism)
c. Cogito, Ergo sum “I think therefore I am”
d. Discourse on Method (Spiel. 478)
e. Math as a foundation for science (mind over matter)
3. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) (Spiel. 466)
a. Heliocentric: stars and planets revolve around the sun (Condemnation)
b. On the Revolutions of Celestial Spheres
c. Raised questions about Aristotle’s Astronomy/ Physics
d. Contrary to religious doctrine
4. Tyco Brahe (1546-1601)
a. Differentiated from theories of Copernicus
b. Denmark, built sophisticated observatory- Uraniborg
c. Collected massive amounts of data- To reject Aristotelian- Ptolemaic System
5. Johannes Kepler (Brahe’s assistant) (Spiel. 467)
a. Develops three laws of planetary motion
1. Ellipse, speed variation, orbit relation to distance
5. Galileo Galilei (1564 -1642)
a. Formalized experimentation/ systematic observation using telescope
b. Laws of motion and inertia, discovered four moons of Jupiter
c. Tried for heresy and imprisoned
d. The Starry Messenger: Legitimized Copernican Theory
e. Dialog on: Ptolemaic and Copernican- Again supported Copern. Theory
f. Body in motion stays in motion unless deflected by external sources
6. Issac Newton (1642-1727)
a. Applied previous scientific research
b. Law of universal gravitation
1.Object stays in motion unless deflected
2. Rate of change in proportion to force acting upon it
3. Every action- Equal and opposite reaction
c. Principia synthesized the Scientific revolution
d. Pope epitaph, “God said let Newton be! And all was light”
7.
Benedict de Spinoza (1632-1677)
a. Dutch philosopher, Pantheism/ Monism.
b. “Toleration of all beliefs”
c. Cartesian
8. Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)
a. Originated science of probability- Pensees Attempt to convert Rationalists
to Christianity
b. Calculating machine
C. Individuals Of Medicine
1. Paracelsus (1493-1541)
a. Macrocosm- parts of universe represented in all people
b. Father pf Modern Medicine (Homeopathy/ Holistic Drugs)
2. Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)
a. On the Fabric of the Human Body: Study of Anatomy/ Physiology
3. William Harvey (1578- 1657)
a .On the motion of the heart and Blood. Heart responsible for circulation
D. Results of the Scientific revolution
1. Social institutions change
a. growth of agriculture, surplus of food, broke the pattern of life
b. population explosion
c. defoliation of forests and demand for wood
d. longitudinal transition to a new source of energy: coal
2. Political thought becomes apparent, politically articulate middle class
a. Evolution of political systems
3. Scientific thought perpetuated
4. integral to the Age of Light (Enlightenment)
E. Scientific Societies:
1. English Royal Society- Little Government Involvement
2. French Royal Academy of Sciences – Gov’t control/ Finances
3. Scientific Academy (Braudenburg)
III. The Enlightenment (Age of Light)
A. Principles of:
1. Reason: Strive to understand aspects of life through critical evaluation
2. Scientific Method: Used to explain society and nature
3. Progress: Improve society and individuals (Progress is possible)
B. Individuals of reason
1. Bernard Fontenelle (1657 -1757)
a. Plurality of Worlds, Eulogies of Scientists
b. Hypothesized the importance of intellectual progress
c. Claimed the church was fraudulent
d. popularized secularism
2. Pierre Bayle (1647 - 1706)
a. delineated “Skepticism” Historical and Critical Dictionary
b. Journalist, Protestant, wrote four volume dictionary on Skepticism
1. Most widely read book in France beside the Bible
2. No absolute truth, only relative truth
c. “Nothing can be known beyond all doubt”
3.
John Locke
a. Essay concerning human understanding, Second Treatise of Civil Gov’t.
b. Rejected theories of Descartes
c. Theories on learning / ideas derived from experience (not innate)
d. Tabula Rasa: Human development by education and social experiences
e. People should be served by elected Government, contract between
ruler/people. Against theories of Hobbes.
C. The Philosophes (Philosophers) Develops in France to reform society
Examined: The meaning of life / God, Cause and effect, Good vs. Evil.
Followed “classicism” of Greece and Rome, Freedom of expression
1. Montesquieu (1689 - 1755)
a. Persian Letters
b. The Spirit of Laws : argued for popular sovereignty (Spiel. 490)
c. separation of powers, no monarchy, no nobility
d. Questioned basis of French society and society in general
e.
Political power should be shared by all social classes, represented middle
class
f. U.S. and French Constitutions
2. Voltaire ( Francois-Mame Arouet) (Spiel. 492)
a. Candide series of misfortunes, Age of Louis XIV
b. Diest, believed in God but not an established church
c. Social and political reformer, enlightened rulers
d. Policy current: theories become more inflexible
e. Criticized Rousseau
2. Denis Diderot (1713 - 1784) D’Alembert
a. Encyclopedia works of philosophy to change way of thinking
1. Placed on papal Index of Prohibited books
2. widely read, most influential in France
4. Paul D’Holbach (1723 - 1789)
a. Atheist, wrote System of Nature
5. David Hume
a. Ideas reflect sensory experiences (observation and reflection)
b. Treatise on Human Nature
c. “The science of man”
d. sensory experiences
e. philosophy undermines “power of reason” associated with the enlightenment
6. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712 -1775)
a. The Social Contract “men are born free, yet everywhere they are in chains”
b. Represented the poor and emerging classes
c. “General will” and popular sovereignty through the search for freedom.
d. Emile, Regarding education and ethics.
7. Marie- Jean De Condorcet (1743-1794)
a. The progress of the Human Mind- Humans progressed through nine stages of
history, the tenth being perfection.
D. Enlightenment influence on Monarchs
1. Prussia Frederick II (The Great) (1762-1796)
a. Allowed religious and philosophical freedom
b. improved education, economy and legal reforms instituted
c. Maintained Junker nobility, territorial expansion
2. Russia Catherine II (The Great) (1762 - 1796)
a. Sought to rule as enlightened monarch, Charter of the Nobility
b. Brought Western ideas / culture to Russia
c. Territorial expansion included Poland
d. Pugachev’s Rebellion (Cossacks)
1. Rebels killed landlords
1. Led by Emelian Pugachev, ended by Habsburg troops
2. led to reforms of Maria Teresa and Joseph II
e. Did not attempt to reform serfdom (Domestic)
3. Austria
a. Maria Teresa
1. Church and state regulated by Government
2. levied taxes, improved agriculture
b. Joseph II
1. Granted religious toleration, attempted to abolish serfdom
3. Leopold II (Josephs brother) forced to cancel reforms
4. France (Louis XV)
a. Appointed Rene De’Maupeou (taxation difficulties)
1. abolished French Parliaments
2. Created a Lackey Parliament
b. Louis XVI
1. Reinstated Old parliament
2. Dismissed De’Maupeou
5. Precondition to financial and political crisis
IV. Results of the Enlightenment
A. Political reform from above (Gov’t was a science)
B. Literacy and reading increased
C. Rise of Salons
1. Drawing rooms used as a forum for philosophic
discussions and public debate
E. Signified the end of absolutism (France)
F. Pushed theology to background
G. Rococo style (Louis XV) reduces baroque forms to decorative style
1. utilized different materials, wood, metal, stucco, glass, porcelain
2. Often birds, nature replaced religious objects
3. Antoine Watteau
4. Giovanni Battista Tiepolo
5. Balthasar Nevmann
H. Beliefs
1. Rationalists: stressed deductive reasoning or mathematical logic
2. Empiricists: Inductive reasoning, emphasis on sensory experiences
3. Philosophes: teachers and journalists who popularized the Enlightenment.
4. Physiocrats: Stressed economic implications for land/ rejected mercantilism.
Social changes in pre-industrial Europe
I.
1700
Economic changes
A. Agricultural
1. Primarily agrarian, “open-field” system
a. depletion of the soil
2. Periodic low yield years, “Famine foods”
3. Crop rotation was utilized
a. Eliminated the problem of fallow lands
b. Alternating grain crops, nitrogen-storing crops
4. “Common” lands / open field system ended by the enclosure movement
a. Determined from the English aristocracy (1700’s: Land owners predominately
elected to house of commons)
b. “Enclosure acts” of Parliament for division of land
c. dealt a blow to subsistence agriculture / peasants (landless, rural proletariat)
d. develops a system to food production
e. success due to the development of tenant farmers
5. Primarily led by the Netherlands and England
a. Growing population fostered Dutch improvements in agriculture
b. Dutch led process of drainage and irrigation
c. Cornelius Vermuyden, able to convert English marshland into arable soil
(reclamation)
d. Charles Townsend, English agricultural pioneer, advocate for scientific farming
e. Jethro Tull, Empirical research to improve animal breeding & agriculture
6. Results
a. Development of “market oriented” farming/ The Columbian Exchange
b. Landless “working class” fostered, rapidly growing labor
c. “The middling sort” most people engaged in commerce, trade, manufact. (England)
d. Bourgeois (France)
B. Cottage industry “Putting-out”
1. fostered by a growth in the population
2. Cheap labor costs fostered a competitive advantage, “Holy Monday” (relaxation)
3. moves away from the craft guilds, into homes, employed rural families
4. raw materials supplied for production purposes (manufacturing techniques)
5. England textile industry responded, capitalism develops
C. Mercantilism/ Colonalism
1. Favorable foreign trade developed through governmental regulations
a. To assist the needs of the state
b. Navigation Acts: (Economic warfare targeted against the Dutch) ((Monopoly))
1. Required imported / exported goods to be carried on British ships
2. Restricted manufacturing in the colonies
3. Fostered a monopoly of trade for England, yet limits growth of their industry
4. Anglo-Dutch wars, decline of Netherlands and Spain in trade power
5. Asiento, West African Slave trade
6. Catalyst for conflict between England and France (Franco-British)
a. War of Spanish Succession
b. War of Austrian Succession
c. Seven Years’ War
1. Treaty of Paris (1763)
D. Growth of foreign trade
1. Toward an Atlantic economy (A result of mercantilism)
2. American, African and Latin American colonies contributed
3. Contrary to mercantilism, Economic Liberalism (Free enterprise)
a. Adam Smith (1723-1790) Inquiry into the wealth of Nations
1. Gov’t should: Provide defense, maintain civil order, public works
2. Promoted unregulated self interest in a competitive market.
II. Population
A. Background
1. limitations fostered by lack of food, disease and conflicts.
2. High birth rate, high death rate
B. Population increase
1. Fewer deaths, disappearance of the plague, less catastrophic deaths
2. Improvements in water supply and sewage reduced typhoid
3. Increased food supply led to fewer famines, food stored in a supply
4. Improved transportation and distribution methods
5. Potato crops improved diets of people, also grains and vegetables
6. Affordable bread “Price revolution”
C. Medical practices
1. By 18th century life spans increased
2. Smallpox inoculations developed through research of Edward Jenner
a. Lady Mary Wortley Montague gave smallpox vaccinations in England
3. Hospital reform sought, based on experimentation
a. surgeons gained experience by battlefield operations / treatment
III. Social changes
A. Development of the “nuclear” family/ crime
1. couples establish their own households apart from extended families
2. Marriage comparatively later in life, so as to support themselves (Economic
independence)
3. Public humiliation used for violations against the norm/ crime and punishment
a. .Decline of capital and corporal punishment
b. Prisons/ Cells developed
c. Death Penalty still common
B. Illegitimate children birth rates increased (1750-1850)
1. Often victims of neglect and abuse, rise of “wet nurses”
a. “Killing nurses”
b. Appearance of toys/games.
c. “Overlaying”
2. result of urban migration
3. Instances of Infanticide denounced by the church/ state
4. Foundling homes attempted to stem the tide of child abandonment/ overcrowding
a. St. Vincent de Paul established several foundling homes
b. Rousseau’s children
C. Children
1. Relative indifference toward children
a. High infant mortality, parents emotionally detached
b. often treatment came from midwives
1. Typically mothers themselves, faced criticism
2.
Raising Children
a. Rigid discipline
b. “Spare the rod and spoil the Child”, English Author Daniel Defoe
c. “To conquer the will” Susannah Wesley
d. Prussia mandated elementary education
e. Development of schools taught religion and literacy (Realschule)
1. Led to a general growth in literacy between 1600 and 1800
2. Chapbooks, writings of religious devotions, prayers.
3. Protestant theology assisted the development of formal education
D. Medicine
1. System of Physicians, Barber-Surgeons (bleed patients)
2. Surgeons began to be licensed to practice – clinical experience
3. Apothecaries, Midwives, faith healers served commoners
4. Poor hospital conditions
E. Art and Literature
1. The Gleaners, Millet
a. Depicts agrarian life
2. Edict on Idle Institutions, outlawed competitive monastic orders
3. Edward Gibbon Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
F. Carnival
1. Masquerades, dancing, making light of society/Sexual activities/ Insults *2000 DBQ
2. “Combat between Carnival and Lent” (1559) Peter Bruegel
a. Carnival represented by fat man, Lent by slender woman
b. Drinking and Taverns
IV. Religion
A. Much of Catholicism remained unchanged
1. Families continued to be committed to Christianity in local churches / parishes
2. Processions held to reaffirm piety
3. Territorial churches, controlled by the state
4. Anti-Semitism evident
B. Protestant reforms
1. Included church interiors
2. “Pietism”
a. Enthusiasm of worship/ Confraternities- Laypeople dedicated to good works
b. Inclusive of all social classes, priesthood for all believers
c. Christian “rebirth”
d. Typically bible reading and discussion groups
e. Often replaced formal services
C. Music
1. Johann Sebasian Bach (1685-1750)
2. George Frederich Handel (1685-1759)
3. Franz Joseph Hayden (1732-1809)
4. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) (Amadeus)