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AP Biology Unit 10 Animal Structure and Function Topics Textbook Correlations Homeostasis Thermoregulation Endocrine System Nitrogenous Waste & Excretory Process Digestion Gas Exchange and Circulation Immune System Neuron, Synapses, & Signaling Nervous System Concepts: 32.1 Concepts: 32.1 Concept: 32.2 Concepts: 32.3 Concepts: 33.1-33.5 Concepts: 34.1-34.7 Concepts: 35.1-35.3 Concepts: 37.1-37.4 Concepts: 38.1-38.2 Key Terms 1. action potential 2. Negative-feedback system 3. Helper T-cells 4. Memory cells 5. B-lymphocyte 6. T-lymphocyte 7. antigen 8. Positive-feedback system 9. macrophage 10. antibodies 11. Plasma cell 12. Presynaptic membrane 13. Postsynaptic membrane 14. neuron 15. axon 16. depolarization 17. synapse 18. myelin 19. peripheral nervous system 20. Fight-or-flight response 21. Endocrine & Exocrine 22.Hypothalamus Recommended work: Chapter section and review questions 1 AP Biology Unit 10 Animal Structure and Function Animals are complex systems of cells working in a coordinated fashion to monitor changing external conditions while maintaining a constant internal environment. To accomplish these tasks, animal cells are organized into systems that are specialized for particular functions. This unit focuses on the structure of these various systems and how they accomplish particular tasks. Cells are organized in the following ways: 1. Tissues: Define tissue: Describe each of the following four general categories of tissues. Epithelial tissue Connective tissue Nervous tissue Muscle tissue 2. Organ: Define organ: 3. Organ system: Define organ system: The function of many animal systems is to contribute toward homeostasis. Define homeostasis: 2 AP Biology Unit 10 Animal Structure and Function Describe how homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback. Illustrate an example. Describe a positive feedback and give two examples. The Endocrine System The endocrine system produces hormones that help maintain homeostasis and regulate reproduction and development. A hormone is a long-distance, chemical messenger produced in one part of the body that affects target cells in another part of the body. Hormones have the following general characteristics: 1. Hormones are transported throughout the body in the blood. 2. Minute amounts of hormones can have significant influence on target cells. 3. Hormones may be steroids, peptides, or modified amino acids. Hormones and other signaling molecules bind to target receptors, triggering specific response pathways. Define the following terms: 1. Endocrine system 3 AP Biology Unit 10 Animal Structure and Function 2. Endocrine glands 3. Hormones Positive and Negative feedback regulate most endocrine secretions. The following are two ways hormones initiate cellular responses, describe and illustrate an example of each one. Cell-surface receptors Intracellular receptors Feedback regulation and coordination with the nervous system are common in endocrine signaling. Read and summarize page 648. 4 AP Biology Unit 10 Animal Structure and Function Illustrate a simple endocrine pathway and describe on example of a simple endocrine pathway (page 649) Define the following terms: 1. Hypothalamus 2a. Anterior pituitary gland 2b. Follicle-stimulating hormone 2c. Luteinizing hormone 3. Posterior pituitary gland Illustrate a neuroendocrine pathway and describe on example of a neuroendocrine pathway that illustrates positive feedback using oxytocin (page 649) and a negative feedback using antidiuretic hormone (page 661). 5 AP Biology Unit 10 Animal Structure and Function Describe the difference between water-soluble hormones and lipid-soluble hormones, and how they function. Summarize the evolution of hormone function (page 653) Thermoregulation Animals can be grouped into two groups based upon how body temperature is maintained: Ectotherms (poikilotherms) and Endotherms. Describe ectotherms (poikilotherms): Describe endotherms: Animals regulate their body temperature by employing the following mechanisms: Describe and give examples of evaporative cooling: Describe and give examples of countercurrent exchange. 6 AP Biology Unit 10 Animal Structure and Function Describe and illustrate the thermostatic function of the hypothalamus in human thermoregulation, include the adjustment of surface area to regulate temperature, vasodilation, vasoconstriction, and countercurrent exchange. (see page 647) The Respiratory System Animal cells require O2 for aerobic respiration. If cells are not directly exposed to the outside environment, then some mechanism must provide gas exchange to internal cells, delivering O2 and removing waste CO2. The movement of gases into and out of the entire organism is called respiration. Describe how carbon dioxide is transport throughout the body, and in your description write out the equation of the blood buffer system and the function of carbonic anhydrase. 7 AP Biology Unit 10 Animal Structure and Function Outline the pathway a molecule of oxygen takes from the air until it is delivered by a red blood cell to the tissues. Describe how respiration is controlled, include the role of chemoreceptors and their location, and use the blood buffer system in your description. The Excretory System In general, excretory systems help maintain homeostasis in organisms by regulating water balance and by removing harmful substances. Osmoregulation is the absorption and excretion of water and dissolved substances so that proper water balance is maintained between the organism and its surroundings. Various excretory mechanisms have evolved in animals for the purpose of osmoregulation and for the removal of toxic substances. Toxic substances include byproducts of cellular metabolism, such as nitrogen products of protein breakdown. Describe the following excretory mechanisms. 1. Kidney: 8 AP Biology Unit 10 Animal Structure and Function Draw and label the nephron of the human kidney, give a brief description of each part and display where filtration, secretion, and reabsorption occurs.(page 659) Two hormones influence osmoregulation by regulating the concentration of salts in the urine. Describe the function of each of the following: Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Aldosterone The Digestive System Digestion is the chemical breakdown of food into smaller molecules. In an individual cell, digestion is accomplished by ________________digestion when a______________ containing digestive _________________ merges with a food vacuole. In most animals, however, the food ingested is too large to be engulfed by individual cells. Thus, food is digested in a _________________________ cavity by ______________________ digestion and absorbed by individual cells. During digestion, four different groups of molecules are commonly encountered. Each is broken down into its molecular components (monomers) by specific enzymes 9 AP Biology Unit 10 Animal Structure and Function Complete the following chart. Nutrient compound Monomer Name one enzyme that aids in the breakdown Starches Proteins Fats or Lipids Nucleic acid Complete the following chart on enzymes. Enzyme Salivary amylase Origin Site of action Functional pH Action Pepsin Proteases e.g. Aminopeptidase Maltase Lactase Trypsin 10 Chymotrypsin Pancreatic amylase Lipase The Nervous System The basic structural unit of the nervous system is a nerve cell or neuron. Draw, label, and describe the function of two neurons end to end, include of the three parts of the neuron: cell body, dentrite, and axon. And myelin sheath, Schwann cells, nodes of Ranvier, synapse (synaptic cleft) Neurons can be classified into three groups by their functions. Describe the function of the following neurons: 1. Sensory neuron (afferent neurons) 2. Motor neuron (efferent neurons) 11 AP Biology Unit 10 Animal Structure and Function 3. Interneuron (association neurons) The transmission of a nerve impulse along a neuron from one end to the other occurs as a result of chemical changes across the membrane of the neuron. Describe the following events of an action potential in a neuron. 1. Resting potential 2. Action potential 3. Repolarization 4. Hyperpolarization 5. Refractory period A nerve impulse propagates from neuron to neuron across a synapse. Describe how this function occurs; include presynaptic membranes, postsynaptic membrane, and neurotransmitter. 12 AP Biology Unit 10 Animal Structure and Function The nervous system of humans and other vertebrates consists of two parts that could be further divided into several more subdivisions. Create a flow chart demonstrating how each of the following are related: central nervous system, peripheral nervous system, somatic nervous system, autonomic nervous system, sympathetic nervous system, and parasympathetic nervous system. The brain serves as a master neurological center for processing information and directing responses. Different regions of the brain have different functions. The vertebrate brain is regionally specialized. The brainstem is made up of the medulla oblongata, pons,, and midbrain. The brainstem controls homeostatic function, such as breathing, swallowing, and digestion, and conducts sensory and motor signals between the spinal cord and higher brain centers. Draw the brain that illustrates this point. (pages 772, 773, 776) 13 AP Biology Unit 10 Animal Structure and Function The Immune System The internal environment of animals provides attractive conditions for the growth of bacteria, viruses, and other organisms. Although some of these organisms can live symbiotically within animals, many either cause destruction of cells or produce toxic chemicals. To protect against these foreign invaders (and to maintain homeostasis), humans possess three levels of defense. The skin and mucous membranes provide a nonspecific first line of defense against invaders entering through the skin or through openings into the body. A nonspecific defense is not specialized for a particular invader. Rather, it is a general defense against all kinds of pathogens. THE FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE FEATURES THE FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS: Describe and explain the following: 1. Skin 2. Antimicrobial proteins (such as lysozyme) 3. Cilia 4. Gastric juices 5. Symbiotic bacteria The second line of defense involves several nonspecific mechanisms, as follows: Describe and explain the following: 1a. Phagocytes (neutrophils, monocytes-macrophages) 1b. Natural killer cells 14 AP Biology Unit 10 Animal Structure and Function 2. Complement proteins 3. Interferon 4. Inflammatory response, include histamine, vasodilation, phagocytes, complement) The immune response is the third line of defense. It differ from the inflammatory response and other nonspecific mechanisms in that it targets specific antigens. An antigen is any molecule, usually a protein or polysaccharide, which can be identified as foreign. It may be a toxin, a part of the coat of a virus, or a molecule unique to the plasma membrane of bacteria, protozoa, pollen, or other foreign cells. The major histocompatibility complex, or MHC, is the mechanism by which the immune system is able to differentiate between self and nonself cells. The MHC is a collection of glycoproteins that exists on the membranes of all body cells. The proteins of a single individual are unique, originating from 20 genes, each with more than 50 alleles. Thus, it is extremely unlikely that two people will possess cells with the same MHC molecules. The primary agents of the immune response are lymphocytes, white blood cells (leukocytes) that originate in the bone marrow (like all blood cells), but concentrate in lymphatic tissues such as lymph nodes, the thymus gland, and the spleen. Describe the function of the following types of lymphocytes: 1. B cells and antibodies 2. Plasma cells 3. Memory cells 15 AP Biology Unit 10 Animal Structure and Function 4. T cells 5. Cytotoxic T cells 6. Helper T cells When an antigen binds to a B cell or when nonself cell binds to a T cell, the B cell or T cell begins to divide, producing numerous daughter cells, all identical copies of the parent cell. This process is called clonal selection, since only the B or T cell that bears the effective antigen is “selected” and reproduces to make clones, or identical copies of itself. Clonal selection results in a proliferation of B cells and T cells that will engage a specific, invading antigen. The responses of the immune system are categorized into two kinds of reactions, describe the following: 1. Cell-mediated response, include T cells, cytotoxic T cells, helper T cells, macrophages, and interleukins. 2. Humoral response, include B cells, plasma cells, memory cells, macrophages, and helper T cells. 16 AP Biology Unit 10 Animal Structure and Function Humans have learned to supplement natural body defenses. Describe the following three important approaches: 1. Antibiotics 2. Vaccines 3. Passive immunity 17 AP Biology Unit 10 Animal Structure and Function Grid-In Questions 1. At this moment your heart is pumping about 70 mL of blood perheartbeat and your heart is beating at a rate of 72 beats per minutes. How many liters of blood will you pump in the next hour? (Answer to the nearest tenth.) Answer:___________ 2. The partial pressure of a gas is the pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases. For example, at sea level the pressure of the atmosphere, a mixture of gases, is 760 mmHg. Oxygen makes up 21% of the mixture, so the partial pressure of oxygen is (760 x 0.21 = 159.6 mmHg) about 160 mmHg. A mountain climber is about to summit a small peak with an atmospheric pressure of 510 mmHg. What is the difference in the partial pressure of oxygen at sea level compared to the mountain peak? Answer:___________ Essay # 1 Describe a negative feedback loop involved in the maintenance of homeostasis. 18 AP Biology Unit 10 Animal Structure and Function Essay #2 Design an experiment to measure the effect of a drug on animal physiology. Include the following in your answer: (a) A description of the animal, drug, equipment, and procedure to be used in the experiment. (b) A graph describing the results you would expect from your experiment. (c) An explanation for your expected results. 19 AP Biology Unit 10 Animal Structure and Function Essay #3 Natural selection favors behaviors that increase survival and reproductive behaviors. For each of the following types of behaviors, describe an example in nature, and justify how this behavior is adaptive. (a) Innate behavior (b) Learned behavior (c) Cooperative behavior (d) Chemical signals 20