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The Lives of Stars From studying nearby stars and stellar clusters most stars are on the main sequence stars become red giants after leaving the main sequence How does this relate to the internal structure of the stars and their nuclear fusion reactions? Susan Cartwright Our Evolving Universe 1 Fusion reactions Generate energy up to iron But, need to get two positively charged nuclei close enough to fuse together need fast movement high temperature (and high density) E=mc2 Converting hydrogen-1 to helium-4 is the easiest and most efficient fusion reaction 0.7% of initial mass converted to energy Susan Cartwright Our Evolving Universe 2 Stellar structure and fusion To keep star stable need pressure to increase downwards temperature increases density increases fusion most likely in central core of star Stars are mainly hydrogen pprreessssuurree,, tteem mppeerraattuurree,, ddeennssiittyy iinnccrreeaassiinngg H Hee —>> H H— iinn ccoorree expect main sequence stars to fuse hydrogen to helium in core Susan Cartwright Our Evolving Universe 3 Hydrogen fusion reactions Reaction rate increases as temperature increases pp chain more massive stars have higher fusion rates CNO cycle Reaction can be direct or use carbon-12 as catalyst this tends to increase abundance of nitrogen and oxygen Susan Cartwright Our Evolving Universe 4 Getting the heat out Energy generated in stellar core has to be transported to surface Two options: radiation convection absorption and re-emission of photons hot gas rising towards surface, cool gas falling Giant stars have convective outer layers transports out the heavy elements produced by fusion Susan Cartwright Our Evolving Universe 5 What happens when the core hydrogen runs out? star expands and cools, becoming luminous red giant (1000x Sun) 1.76 Gyr core shrinks under gravity until hydrogen outside starts to fuse 1.65 Gyr 1.69 Gyr on main sequence 10x Sun Susan Cartwright star now has helium core 1.61 Gyr (not hot enough to fuse) Our Evolving Universe 6 Stages of hydrogen fusion Main sequence stars fuse hydrogen to helium in core Red giants (and subgiants) fuse hydrogen to helium in shell outside helium core Stars have nearly constant luminosity on main sequence, but red giants get brighter as they age Red giant stage lasts only 10% as long as main sequence Susan Cartwright established fusion in shell core hydrogen fusion Our Evolving Universe starting to fuse outside core 7 Helium fusion Neither beryllium-8 nor boron-8 is stable need to combine three helium nuclei to get stable carbon-12 beryllium-8 serves as intermediate stage need high temperature and density (else 8Be decays before it gets converted to 12C) Susan Cartwright Our Evolving Universe 8 Stages of helium fusion carbon core with helium fusion outside: star becomes a giant again helium fusion in core: star is smaller and hotter, but less bright Susan Cartwright 1.82 Gyr Our Evolving Universe 1.86 Gyr core helium starts to fuse 1.76 Gyr 9 Helium fusion on the HR diagram Helium fusion is much less efficient than hydrogen fusion (0.07% instead of 0.7%) helium fusion stage lasts for a much shorter time helium core fusing stars: the horizontal branch of a globular cluster Susan Cartwright Our Evolving Universe 10 Side effects of helium fusion Adding more helium nuclei to carbon can produce the alpha-process elements Why does helium fusion make mostly carbon? oxygen-16, neon-20, etc. Adding helium to carbon-13 or neon-22 produces free neutrons which can easily combine with nuclei (no charge) to produce different elements Susan Cartwright Our Evolving Universe because carbon nuclei have an energy level at exactly the right place otherwise carbon would be a rare element and we would not exist! Fred Hoyle, 1953 11 Stellar evolution Note step is in log (age): each frame is 60% older than the one before massive stars evolve very quickly post-main-sequence life of star is always comparatively short massive stars change colour a great deal, but don’t change brightness much less massive stars become much brighter as red giants Susan Cartwright Our Evolving Universe 12 After helium fusion Fusion of heavier elements gets more difficult higher mass means lower speed at given temperature higher charge means more electrostatic repulsion Stars like the Sun never get beyond helium fusion More massive stars (>8 MS) can fuse elements up to iron What happens to Sun-like stars when the helium is used up? What happens to massive stars when they reach iron? fusion beyond iron requires energy How are the heavy elements formed in stellar cores dispersed into space? …next lecture! Susan Cartwright Our Evolving Universe 13