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population
population

... A population must satisfy five conditions if it is to remain in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium: Extremely large population size. In small populations, chance fluctuations in the gene pool can cause genotype frequencies to change over time. These random changes are called genetic drift. No gene flow. Gen ...
FULL TEXT - RS Publication
FULL TEXT - RS Publication

... animals, using molecular genetics and recombinant DNA technology is more difficult and costly than in simpler organisms. In mammals, techniques for reproductive manipulation of gametes and embryos such as obtaining of a complete new organism from adult differentiated cells through cloning, and proce ...
27. Introduction to speciation, allopatric speciation
27. Introduction to speciation, allopatric speciation

... •  Species are a reproductive community •  Composed of number of populations •  Gene pool of species contains substantial genetic variation •  Gene flow within and among populations is a strong cohesive force ...
Ch. 15 Notes
Ch. 15 Notes

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Katarzyna Zabrocka - Nature Nurture: The Role of Genetics and Environment in Human Disease and Characteristics
Katarzyna Zabrocka - Nature Nurture: The Role of Genetics and Environment in Human Disease and Characteristics

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Human genetic variation



Human genetic variation is the genetic differences both within and among populations. There may be multiple variants of any given gene in the human population (genes), leading to polymorphism. Many genes are not polymorphic, meaning that only a single allele is present in the population: the gene is then said to be fixed. On average, in terms of DNA sequence all humans are 99.9% similar to any other humans.No two humans are genetically identical. Even monozygotic twins, who develop from one zygote, have infrequent genetic differences due to mutations occurring during development and gene copy-number variation. Differences between individuals, even closely related individuals, are the key to techniques such as genetic fingerprinting. Alleles occur at different frequencies in different human populations, with populations that are more geographically and ancestrally remote tending to differ more.Causes of differences between individuals include the exchange of genes during meiosis and various mutational events. There are at least two reasons why genetic variation exists between populations. Natural selection may confer an adaptive advantage to individuals in a specific environment if an allele provides a competitive advantage. Alleles under selection are likely to occur only in those geographic regions where they confer an advantage. The second main cause of genetic variation is due to the high degree of neutrality of most mutations. Most mutations do not appear to have any selective effect one way or the other on the organism. The main cause is genetic drift, this is the effect of random changes in the gene pool. In humans, founder effect and past small population size (increasing the likelihood of genetic drift) may have had an important influence in neutral differences between populations. The theory that humans recently migrated out of Africa supports this.The study of human genetic variation has both evolutionary significance and medical applications. It can help scientists understand ancient human population migrations as well as how different human groups are biologically related to one another. For medicine, study of human genetic variation may be important because some disease-causing alleles occur more often in people from specific geographic regions. New findings show that each human has on average 60 new mutations compared to their parents.Apart from mutations, many genes that may have aided humans in ancient times plague humans today. For example, it is suspected that genes that allow humans to more efficiently process food are those that make people susceptible to obesity and diabetes today.
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