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non-relativistic Breit
non-relativistic Breit

Chapter 4 Four Fundamental Interactions
Chapter 4 Four Fundamental Interactions

Law of Conservation of Muons
Law of Conservation of Muons

... The apparent absence of muon-electron transitions without neutrinos, such as p. e+y, p. 3e, and p +p ~e +p, leads one to suspect that there is a new conservation law forbidding them. Calculations' of the rate of such processes, assuming no such law exists, have indicated that it is hard to understan ...
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neutrinos: mysterious particles with fascinating features, which led to

... decays involving the light particles that we call leptons. The Standard Model of particle physics takes into account that At that time, they knew the electron, the neutrino (as a later (in 1975) yet another cousin of the electron was found, hypothesis) and the muon, µ− , which had been discovered in ...
Quantum mechanic and Particle physics
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... developing schematic diagrams that represent various interactions. •  The diagrams themselves can be subjected to various operations which then correspond to an interaction that may, or may not, occur - depending on other factors, like energy and charge conservation, etc. •  Physicists now use Feynm ...
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... We will review Dirac’s argument for anti-particles later in this course, together with the better understanding that we get from viewing particles in the framework of quantum field theory. For now, we will quickly sketch the circumstances in which we expect the number of particles to change. Conside ...
Broken symmetry revisited - Homepages of UvA/FNWI staff
Broken symmetry revisited - Homepages of UvA/FNWI staff

... The use of symmetry considerations has been extended significantly by the observation that a symmetry of the action is not automatically a symmetry of the groundstate of a physical system. If the action is invariant under some symmetry group G and the groundstate only under a subgroup H of G, the sy ...
Atomic Theory and the Atom
Atomic Theory and the Atom

thes tandardmodel - CLASSE Cornell
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Mysteries of Mass Article in Scientific American

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The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom

... • The wave characteristics of matter were clearly included and defined. • The energies were correctly determined; these were the same as the Bohr model but on a much firmer footing. • Other things such as the angular momentum of the electron orbits naturally emerged from the solution. ...
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The Basic Laws of Nature: from quarks to cosmos

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PHY313 - CEI544 The Mystery of Matter From Quarks to the

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Grand Unified Theory

A Grand Unified Theory (GUT) is a model in particle physics in which at high energy, the three gauge interactions of the Standard Model which define the electromagnetic, weak, and strong interactions or forces, are merged into one single force. This unified interaction is characterized by one larger gauge symmetry and thus several force carriers, but one unified coupling constant. If Grand Unification is realized in nature, there is the possibility of a grand unification epoch in the early universe in which the fundamental forces are not yet distinct.Models that do not unify all interactions using one simple Lie group as the gauge symmetry, but do so using semisimple groups, can exhibit similar properties and are sometimes referred to as Grand Unified Theories as well.Unifying gravity with the other three interactions would provide a theory of everything (TOE), rather than a GUT. Nevertheless, GUTs are often seen as an intermediate step towards a TOE.The novel particles predicted by GUT models are expected to have energies around the GUT scale—just a few orders of magnitude below the Planck scale—and so will be well beyond the reach of any foreseen particle collider experiments. Therefore, the particles predicted by GUT models will be unable to be observed directly and instead the effects of grand unification might be detected through indirect observations such as proton decay, electric dipole moments of elementary particles, or the properties of neutrinos. Some grand unified theories predict the existence of magnetic monopoles.As of 2012, all GUT models which aim to be completely realistic are quite complicated, even compared to the Standard Model, because they need to introduce additional fields and interactions, or even additional dimensions of space. The main reason for this complexity lies in the difficulty of reproducing the observed fermion masses and mixing angles. Due to this difficulty, and due to the lack of any observed effect of grand unification so far, there is no generally accepted GUT model.
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