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Background - Harvard University
Background - Harvard University

... We refer to this as the hedonic function of rewards. The following descriptions will show that both of these perceptions of reward fall well short of providing a complete and coherent description of reward functions. One of the earliest scientifically driven definitions of reward function comes from ...
Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology Metabolic control of puberty
Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology Metabolic control of puberty

... a close link between fatness and fertility. Recognition of such a link paved the way for the identification of the hormonal signals and neuroendocrine mechanisms involved in this phenomenon. During the last two decades, considerable progress has been made towards the elucidation of the neurohormonal ...
Dopamine neurons projecting to the posterior striatum form an
Dopamine neurons projecting to the posterior striatum form an

... different, but overlapping, areas of the midbrain (Figure 3; Figure 3-figure supplement 1; Figure 3-figure supplement 2; Figure 3-figure supplement 3) (Bjorklund and Dunnett, 2007; Haber, 2014; Lammel et al., 2008; Swanson, 1982). Interestingly, we observed an overlapping but dorsolaterally shifted ...
Serotonin synthesis, release and reuptake in terminals: a
Serotonin synthesis, release and reuptake in terminals: a

... processing, but recent work suggests a strong role for 5-HT[7]. Thus, the neurochemistry and electrophysiology affect each other, both affect behavior, and both are affected, of course, by neuronal morphology, which is itself changeable. Even this brief discussion shows why understanding the casual ...
the resonate-and-fire neuron: time dependent and frequency
the resonate-and-fire neuron: time dependent and frequency

... C.1 Phase line for one-dimensional system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...
to eat or to sleep? orexin in the regulation of feeding and wakefulness
to eat or to sleep? orexin in the regulation of feeding and wakefulness

... ■ Abstract Orexin-A and orexin-B are neuropeptides originally identified as endogenous ligands for two orphan G-protein–coupled receptors. Orexin neuropeptides (also known as hypocretins) are produced by a small group of neurons in the lateral hypothalamic and perifornical areas, a region classicall ...
Shape Selectivity in Primate Frontal Eye Field
Shape Selectivity in Primate Frontal Eye Field

... First published May 21, 2008; doi:10.1152/jn.01188.2007. Previous neurophysiological studies of the frontal eye field (FEF) in monkeys have focused on its role in saccade target selection and gaze shift control. It has been argued that FEF neurons indicate the locations of behaviorally significant v ...
Magel2 Is Required for Leptin-Mediated Depolarization of POMC
Magel2 Is Required for Leptin-Mediated Depolarization of POMC

... PWS, but no one knows which gene is important for normal body weight. One of the inactivated genes is called MAGEL2. We previously found that mice missing the equivalent mouse gene, named Magel2, have more fat and are overweight compared to mice with an intact Magel2 gene. In other forms of genetic ...
Neural Networks
Neural Networks

... The sections of this text are mostly independent from each other The document itself is divided into different parts, which are again divided into chapters. Although the chapters contain cross-references, they are also individually acces- ...
Specialized Elements of Orbitofrontal Cortex in Primates
Specialized Elements of Orbitofrontal Cortex in Primates

... The orbitofrontal cortex in primates is a large and heterogeneous region, and both its extent and architectonic areas have been variously described. In rhesus monkeys, the basal surface of the prefrontal cortex includes area 13, the orbital part of area 12, the rostrally situated area 11, and the ba ...
The subfornical organ: A central nervous system site for actions of
The subfornical organ: A central nervous system site for actions of

... dorsomedial nucleus, and the lateral hypothalamic area (31), and it is clear that leptin signaling in these structures plays a pivotal role in regulating energy balance. The presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) leads to the obvious question as to how this peripheral peptide gains access to the ...
basic mechanisms of sleep
basic mechanisms of sleep

... of muscarinic M2 receptors (M2AChR) in the pontine reticular formation has been shown to be the primary mechanism for REM induction with carbachol, and such activation has been shown to increase G-protein binding in brainstem nuclei associated with ACh release in the PRF and REM sleep (7, 23). Choli ...
Functional Selectivity and Antidepressant Activity of Serotonin 1A
Functional Selectivity and Antidepressant Activity of Serotonin 1A

... small GTPases Ras and Raf [22,48,51,52] and active MAPK/ERK kinase (MEK) [22]. Activation of Ras results in sequential activation of Raf1, which in turn phosphorylates and activates MEK 1 and 2. MEK, a direct uspstream protein kinase regulator of ERK, phosphorylates and activates ERK. Additionally, ...
REGENERATION OF AN IDENTIFIED CENTRAL NEURON IN THE
REGENERATION OF AN IDENTIFIED CENTRAL NEURON IN THE

... Eleven control cells contralateral to such close cut Microelectrodes filled with the dye Lucifer Yellow MGIs displayed completely normal dendritic arboriza(Stewart, 1978) were used for intracellular staining. Axtions up to 3 weeks after injury. It is clear, therefore, ons or cell bodies were penetra ...
Measurement of Corpus Callosum in Sudanese Population Using MRI
Measurement of Corpus Callosum in Sudanese Population Using MRI

... Corpus callosum (CC) is the main fiber tract connecting the cortical and subcortical regions of the right and left hemispheres and plays an essential role in the integration of information between the two hemispheres (Gupta ,et al 2008).Position and size of the corpus callosum is well appreciated in ...
The Formation of Terminal Fields in the Absence of Competitive
The Formation of Terminal Fields in the Absence of Competitive

... cone must extend through putative RoP territory to reach the region it ultimately innervates (Fig. 1). The CaP and RoP growth cones follow a common pathway out of the spinal cord, and their axons are closely associated until they reach the horizontal septum, where they then proceed along divergent p ...
The subthalamic nucleus in the context of movement disorders
The subthalamic nucleus in the context of movement disorders

... 2000a). In rodents, secondary dendrites bifurcate at distances between 18 and 100 mm from the cell body and may extend up to 500 mm from the point of branching (Afsharpour, 1985a). The dendritic ®eld of a single STN neuron can cover up to one-half of the nucleus in rats (Kita et al., 1983). The majo ...
$doc.title

... The  completion  of  this  thesis  marks  the  end  of  one  of  the  most  significant   accomplishments  of  my  life.  It  was  a  both  a  difficult  and  fulfilling  journey,  requiring   a  stanch  work  ethic,  perseverance  an ...
Potential switch from eupnea to fictive gasping after blockade of
Potential switch from eupnea to fictive gasping after blockade of

... both a direct modulation of channel conductances and alteration of ionic homeostasis in the extracellular environment. Specifically, hypoxia suppresses several types of voltage-gated potassium channels (4, 9, 16, 20, 21, 49), activates persistent sodium channels (13, 15, 17), and induces an augmenta ...
Functional Neuroimaging Insights into the Physiology of Human Sleep
Functional Neuroimaging Insights into the Physiology of Human Sleep

... functional brain mapping during REM sleep might therefore also be interpreted in light of dreaming properties.36-38 Brain Activity within Sleep Stages: Phasic Sleep Activities More recent neuroimaging studies have addressed the correlates of phasic neural events that build up the architecture of sle ...
Neuronal control of leech behavior - Emory Biology
Neuronal control of leech behavior - Emory Biology

... part of the prostomium, plus a subesophageal ganglion (sub.), which forms from the coalescence of the four most anterior embryonic ganglia that are visible in the adult brain as neuromeres 1–4. (B) Types of preparations used to study the neuronal bases of leech behaviors. The kinematics of all behav ...
glial versus neuronal uptake of glutamate
glial versus neuronal uptake of glutamate

... inputs to the hippocampus were shown in autoradiographic studies to be localized in the known target areas of these projections (Storm-Mathisen, 1977). Aspartate is taken up by a high-affinity transport system which appears to be the same as that for glutamate and therefore cannot be distinguished i ...
Serotonin in the inferior colliculus fluctuates with behavioral state
Serotonin in the inferior colliculus fluctuates with behavioral state

... amount of 5-HT in the extracellular fluid. There is strong regional variation in the concentration of these proteins, which can lead to regional variation in the magnitude and time course of 5-HT profiles (Dahlin et al., 2007; Gasser et al., 2009; Gehlert et al., 2008). The variability in 5-HT regul ...
A decade of the anaphase-promoting complex in the nervous system
A decade of the anaphase-promoting complex in the nervous system

... the anaphase-promoting complex (Zachariae et al. 1998; Kramer et al. 2000). Characterization of the functions and regulation of Cdh1–APC and Cdc20–APC in dividing cells has provided invaluable clues for our understanding of the novel functions and mechanisms of the anaphasepromoting complex in the n ...
Supplementary Motor Area and Presupplementary Motor Area
Supplementary Motor Area and Presupplementary Motor Area

... Supplementary Motor Area and Presupplementary Motor Area: Targets of Basal Ganglia and Cerebellar Output Dalila Akkal,2 Richard P. Dum,2 and Peter L. Strick1,2,3 1Pittsburgh Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 2Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition and Department of Neurobiology, and 3Department of ...
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Activity-dependent plasticity

A defining feature of the brain is its capacity to undergo changes based on activity-dependent functions, also called activity-dependent plasticity. Its ability to remodel itself forms the basis of the brain’s capacity to retain memories, improve motor function, and enhance comprehension and speech amongst other things. It is this trait to retain and form memories that is functionally linked to plasticity and therefore many of the functions individuals perform on a daily basis. This plasticity is the result of changed gene expression that occurs because of organized cellular mechanisms.The brain’s ability to adapt toward active functions has allowed humans to specialize in specific processes based on relative use and activity. For example, a right-handed person may perform any movement poorly with his/her left hand but continuous practice with the less dominant hand can make both hands just as able. Another example is if someone was born with a neurological disorder such as autism or had a stroke that resulted in a disorder, then they are capable of retrieving much of their lost function by practicing and “rewiring” the brain in order to incorporate these lost manners. Thanks to the pioneers within this field, many of these advances have become available to most people and many more will continue to arrive as new features of plasticity are discovered.
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