Download AMH1 Unit 5 Reading Guide

AMH1 Unit 5 1820-1850
John Michalski
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AGE OF JACKSON
Read the following questions BEFORE you start to read. As you read, answer these conceptual
questions in order to prepare for your test.
Essential Understandings (Generalizations) and Guiding (Essential) Questions:
Gains in territory may cause political and economic conflict
1. How did the territorial gains affect the expansion of slavery?
2. Why were southerners so protective of the institution of slavery?
3. To what extent did Manifest Destiny create positive and negative change?
4. How does ambition drive territorial expansion
Political and economic debates can divide a nation
1. How does the debate over states’ rights divide the two regions?
2. To what extent does the federal government exert control of the states?
3. How do tariff laws and political debates over slavery create discord?
4. How are the economies of the north and south diverging?
Moral and spiritual values can drive social change
1. In what ways would the Second Great Awakening impact society?
2. What role does religion play in changing debate over slavery?
Polarizing personalities may cause political, social, and economic turmoil
1. What impact would Andrew Jackson ‘s personality and policies have on the
nation
2. How do new political figures like John C. Calhoun, Daniel Webster, and Henry
Clay change the course of America?
3. Why does the Era of Good Feelings during the presidency of James Monroe come
to an end?
4. How do slave revolts effect the perception of slavery in the North and the South?
5. What impact will James K Polk’s expansionist policies have on the stability of the
nation?
Technological improvements create revolutionary change
1. How does new technology alter American life?
2. What impact will new technology have on the economy?
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Unit Vocabulary
As you read the unit, define the Tier 3 vocabulary terms using the Tier 1 and Tier 2 vocabulary
terms. The Tier 1 and 2 terms can be used more than once. Example: States’ Rights (Tier 3)
includes the belief that a state can use Nullification (Tier 2) to Cancel (Tier 1) a federal law that
the state believes is unconstitutional.
Tier 1
Tier 2
Tier 3
Education
War
Ban
Nature
Cancel
Believe
Rights
Change
Religion
Author
Meeting
Books
Peace
Growth
Nullification
Slavery
Transcendentalism
abolition
temperance
mental illness
Asylum
Destiny
Reform
Tariffs
Factory system
Domesticity
Revivalism
Corrupt Bargain
Romanticism
Slave Revolt
Veto
Nationalism
Sectionalism
States’ rights
Monroe Doctrine
Missouri Compromise
Tariff of 1828
Elections of 1824, 1828
Worcester v. Georgia
National Bank Veto
Hudson River School of Art
Manifest Destiny
Second Great Awakening
American Anti-Slavery Society
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
Seneca Falls Convention
Oneida Community
Trail of Tears
New Harmony
manifest destiny
Nativism
Market Revolution
Lowell system
revivalism and camp meetings
“cult of domesticity”
Nat Turner’s Rebellion
Transcendentalist movement
Mexican American War
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
54’ 40’ or Fight
Henry Clay’s American System
Key People
Shakers
Nat Turner
Cherokee
John Quincy Adams
William Crawford
Martin Van Buren
John C Calhoun
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Henry Clay
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
Dorthea Dix
Sojourner Truth
Andrew Jackson
Rachel Donelson Robards
Horace Mann
Fredrick Douglass
William Lloyd Garrison
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
Susan B. Anthony
As you read, write down additional terms/words that you do not understand and add them to this
list because they may be used on school or state tests.
My Personal Vocabulary List
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5.01 Industrialization
Overview
As noted in Unit 4, one of the impacts of the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812
was the increase in American-made products and investment in American business. This would
prove to be an important turning point for the United States socially, politically, and
economically. Traditional methods of production would shift away from work done in the homes
(cottage industry) and in small artisan shops by a small number of skilled craftsmen. Work with
start to be performed in buildings called factories powered by water and later steam produced by
burning coal. A new division of labor between men, women, and children would result as well.
The nation developed a Market Economy based upon regional specialization. The new
economy would be based upon the use of money (capital), investment (sometimes risky called
speculation), and inexpensive labor (slaves in the South and women, children, and immigrants in
the North). These regional differences between the North, South, and the West would contribute
to growing sectionalism (friction between the sections due to different needs and beliefs). The
United States economy became increasingly diverse by 1850 with the North becoming
industrial, the West becoming the bread basket (King Corn), and the South becoming the
global leader in exporting cotton (King Cotton) to Europe as well as the textile factories in the
North.
Inventions and Innovation Aid American Industrialization
A number of inventions had great impact on the United States in the 1800s. These
advances served to increase a sense of nationalism among citizens, while at the same time
exposing regional sectionalism. Eli Whitney's cotton gin greatly increased the rate at which
cotton could be produced. As a result, the South became known as a "cotton kingdom." The
invention made many in the South rich as demand for the product grew in both the US and
Europe. It also helped make the South a society greatly dependent on agriculture and the use of
slave labor for survival. While Whitney's cotton gin greatly impacted the South, it was another of
his innovations that transformed the economy of the North. After the cotton gin, Whitney began
to manufacture muskets. In this industry, he introduced the idea of interchangeable parts. For the
first time, each part of the musket was produced with such precision that it could fit with parts
from any other musket. Whitney's concept of interchangeable parts spread to other industries and
became the basis for industrial development in the northern United States.
1. Which inventor helped both the North and the South and caused regional sectionalism?
During the 18th century, British manufacturers began replacing manual labor with
machines, causing sweeping economic and social changes. Eventually known as the First
Industrial Revolution, these changes later came to the United States. Men like Samuel Slater
came from Europe, bringing with them knowledge of machine manufacturing and factories. In
1793, Slater built the first successful mechanized textile factory in America but it only produced
thread and not finished cloth. While the South became dependent on a plantation system (large
farms using slaves to produce large amounts of cotton or some other cash crop), the North came
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to rely on the factory system for its economic survival. The factory system relied greatly on the
labor of the lower classes and immigrants to work in industrialized factories.
2. Describe the importance of the North's "factory system" and the South's "plantation system."
Francis Cabot Lowell, Nathan Appleton, and Patrick Tracy Jackson are credited
with recognizing all the stages needed to manufacture cloth. The factory was located in Waltham
Massachusetts and took advantage of the fast flowing rivers in New England to power the
machinery. New England also had capital (money) needed to invest in factories and machinery, a
large potential labor force, and infrastructure to ship finished products to other parts of the
country and overseas. New England would gradually shift from an economy based upon shipping
and trade to manufacturing. Farming (agriculture) declined in New England and many young
women would come to Lowell Massachusetts and other New England towns to work in the
textile mills. The young women were housed in dormitories under strict supervision and control
(Lowell System). The hours were long and the pay was low. Often a male relative would visit
once a week to pick up the wages of the young girls since they were forbidden to open up bank
accounts of their own. Some young women, despite these conditions, viewed this as being
preferable to marriage. Women in the United States had very few rights and there are numerous
accounts of a husband beating his wife to death and not even being charged with a crime. The
women who preferred to work in the textile mills would be called spinsters -a term sometimes
even used today to describe a middle-aged or elderly woman who never got married.
3. What was the advantage of building factories in New England?
4. Who were the first workers in the textile factories?
THE ERIE CANAL & INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS
Another key development during this period was the completion of the Erie Canal in
1825. The canal provided a new shipping route from Lake Erie to the Hudson River. Because it
connected New York City to the Great Lakes, the canal helped make New York a dominant
commercial center by expanding its markets. It also allowed people to travel much more cheaply,
carrying their household goods with them. As a result, whole families could now move west
easier than had previously been possible. Along with Robert Fulton's invention of the steampowered boat, the Erie Canal greatly enhanced the economy of New York City and the
northeastern United States. The Erie Canal also added fuel to the debate whether the federal
government should fund the building of infrastructure (canals, roads, railroads, bridges,
harbors).
5. Why was the Erie Canal important?
6. Who invented the steam-powered boat?
It became obvious that the improved infrastructure increased economic activity and
assisted in the creation of factories because it allowed raw materials to be shipped cheaply to the
factories as well as the finished products to market. It also allowed the products of the
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agricultural South and West be transported to the factories and cities in the North as well as to
ports for export to Europe. For example, the steamboat became the most important
transportation method in the South and allowed huge bales of cotton to be cheaply exported to
Britain and France. A National Road was started in 1811 and by 1838 its route was completed
between Cumberland, MD and Vandalia, IL. In 1825 the first railroad was completed in the US.
An explosion in the construction of roads, railroads, and canals would continue throughout the
antebellum period (the period before the American Civil War) and would be concentrated in the
North and West.
7. Name three internal improvements and their impact upon the US economy.
A key development that was aided from the improvements in transportation was the
regional specialization in economic activity. This is defined as each section assuming a
particular economic role within the United States. As New England and states like New York
and Pennsylvania industrialized, the breadbasket of the country shifted to the West. “King
Cotton” from the South became even more profitable and Southerners looked to expand their
plantation system and slavery to new farmland in the West. A negative aspect of the regional
specialization was increased sectionalism. In fact, this period of American history is noted for
factors in which some increased sectionalism while others increased nationalism. Once again,
sectionalism is the belief and identity that a person has in which they believe that their particular
section of the country is more important than the country as a whole. An example of this would
be a plantation owner first identifying himself as a Southerner instead of as an American.
Another example would be a New England trader identifying himself as a Yankee instead of as
an American first. Both would support legislation that aided their particular section first over
legislation that may aid another section of the country instead of theirs.
8. Define regional specialization.
9. What is the difference between sectionalism and nationalism and give an example of each.
An example of a nationalistic factor is in 1815 when Pres. Madison presented a plan to
Congress. This plan included three major components: developing transportation networks and
additional internal improvements, establishing a protective tariff, and creating a new Bank of
the United States. Initially this plan had support from South Carolina Sen. John C Calhoun
and Kentucky Sen. Henry Clay. Henry Clay would become this plan's chief advocate and would
call it the American System. Henry Clay hoped that this plan would tie the nation together
through economic interdependency. This means that each section would need the other sections
to survive and therefore promote nationalism over sectionalism.
The Tariff of 1816 was opposed by many in the South and West because both of these
sections imported key necessary items from overseas suppliers and a tariff would raise the price
of these items. Moreover, some were afraid that European nations would raise their tariff on
Southern cotton and Western agricultural products making their products more expensive and
therefore negatively impacting their sales. Northerners welcomed a higher tariff because a tariff
would make foreign goods more expensive causing Americans to buy more American-made
products that were made in the North. The Tariff of 1816 is known as America's first protective
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tariff meaning that it was purposely made to make foreign goods more expensive so that
Americans would buy American-made products.
10. Name the three components of the American System.
11. Why were many in the South and West opposed to a higher tariff?
12. Why is the Tariff of 1816 considered to be the first protective tariff in American history?
TECHNOLOGY AIDS WESTERN EXPANSION TOO
Advances in technology also played a major role in western expansion. Samuel F.B.
Morse helped revolutionize the communication industry through his invention of the telegraph,
thereby uniting the country through transcontinental communication. The steel plow, invented
by John Deere in the 1830s, allowed farmers to plow and grow crops in areas out west that
would have otherwise been considered unfit for farming. At the same time, Cyrus McCormick's
reaper made it easier to harvest wheat. These and other advances served to provide the US with
national markets and increased productivity and won the respect of other countries.
13. Which inventors played an important role in westward expansion and why?
AN ERA OF GOOD FEELINGS
As noted in Unit Four, the Federalist party committed political suicide by opposing The
War of 1812 in the Hartford Convention. In 1816 the country elected Virginian James Monroe
as President. After his inauguration, President Monroe toured the entire country and received an
outpouring of affection when arriving in Boston Massachusetts. As you may remember, New
England was formally the center of power for the Federalist party so this event marked to the
entire nation that the Democratic-Republican Monroe had the support of the entire nation. A
Boston newspaper declared that the country had entered an "Era of Good Feelings." This short
time in American history was marked by political unity and feelings of nationalism.
14. What is meant by the Era of Good Feelings?
5.02 NATIONALISM STARTING IN THE ERA OF GOOD FEELINGS
Nationalism Reinforced by the Supreme Court
John Marshall who was appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court by John Adams
in 1801 continued a Federalist interpretation of the Constitution in his decisions. In the court case
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) the Supreme Court ruled that Congress had the final authority over
interstate commerce and not the states. The court case centered upon the complaint of Aaron
Ogden who received a license by New York State to run a steamship ferry between New York
and New Jersey. Thomas Gibbons soon began to operate a different steamship ferry service on
the same stretch of the Hudson River. Gibbons claimed that he was entitled to do so under
federal law. John Marshall and the Supreme Court agreed. This decision increased the power of
the federal government.
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15. What is the importance of the Supreme Court case Gibbons v. Ogden?
Many in the South opposed the National Bank. Some believed that the government did
not have the authority to create the bank. Others believed that the bank served the needs of the
North over the South and the West. Still others complained that the shareholders in the bank
made money by charging high interest rates and forcing foreclosure on farmers who could not
pay their loans due to a bad harvest, drought, disease, or other calamity that the farmers had no
control of. The state of Maryland levied a high tax upon its branch of the Bank of the United
States hoping to make it unprofitable and therefore close. The Supreme Court under John
Marshall ruled that the state could not tax the bank. Moreover, John Marshall stated that "the
power to tax is the power to destroy." McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) reinforced the federal
government's control of the economy over that of the states and reinforced the constitutionality
of the Bank of the United States.
16. What did the Supreme Court role in McCulloch v. Maryland?
In Fletcher v. Peck (1810) the Marshall Court nullified a Georgia law that violated the
constitutional right of a person to enter into a business contract. In Dartmouth College v.
Woodward (1819) the Supreme Court ruled that the state of New Hampshire could not change
the original charter that Dartmouth College received when it was established during colonial
times. The importance of both these cases established American contract law that would help
promote business and business creation. The Marshall Court continued to empower the federal
government over the states, empower the role of the Supreme Court, promote nationalism over
sectionalism and states rights, and promote the federal government's supreme role in creating
economic policy.
17. What is the importance of the court cases Fletcher v. Peck and Dartmouth College v.
Woodward?
18. What four ideas did the Marshall Court promote in its decisions?
Nationalism is Reflected in Foreign Policy
With the end of the War of 1812 and the Federalist Party, the United States entered a
period of national pride and political unity (one-political party) known as the Era of Good
Feelings. It was during this period that President James Monroe issued the Monroe Doctrine in
1823. The document was actually written by the Secretary of State John Quincy Adams. It
stated that the United States would not tolerate European intervention in the affairs of any
independent nation in the Americas (North, Central, and South America). It also stated that the
American continents were no longer open to colonization from European powers, and that the
US would view any such attempts as acts of aggression. Finally, it promised that the United
States would neither interfere in the internal affairs of other countries in the Americas (Central &
South America), nor those of European nations. Since America was still relatively weak, the
Monroe Doctrine was not even noticed by most in Latin America. It angered the British because
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they preferred a joint declaration with the United States to keep other potential European
colonizers out of Latin America. Spain, Portugal, and Russia showed signs of interference and
expansion into the former colonies of Latin America. President James Monroe did not want to
involve the United States into a perceived alliance with a European nation. As you may
remember, this idea was promoted by George Washington in his Farewell Address. In reality it
would be the British Navy that would actually enforce the Monroe Doctrine until the latter part
of the 19th century.
19. What did the Monroe Doctrine state?
Setting the Continental Boundary During the Early 1800s
Under the Monroe administration a series of treaties were made that solidified the
northern and southern borders of the United States. The Rush- Bagot Treaty (1817) with Great
Britain demilitarized the Great Lakes and eventually the border with Canada. The Treaty of
1818 fixed the US northern border at the 49th parallel from the Great Lakes to the Rocky
Mountains. A compromise was also reached with Great Britain to jointly occupy the Oregon
territory and therefore send the message to both Spain and Russia that they were not to encroach
on that land. Finally as discussed in Unit Four, the Adams-Onis Treaty (1819) with Spain
secured Florida for the United States and Spain agreed to give up her claims in Oregon. A strong
incentive for Spain to cede Florida was the military expedition led by Andrew Jackson into
Florida to attack the American Indians who were raiding Georgia. Spain believed that it would
be better to sell Florida to the United States before the United States just took it.
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20. Name the three treaties and their provisions (parts) that solidified the borders of the United
States during the Monroe administration.
Nationalism and the Westward Push Leads to Compromise
Throughout this period Americans and later European immigrants would push westward
in order to acquire cheap land. Mountain men such as Jim Bridger, Jedediah Smith, John
Fremont, and James "Grizzly" Adams to name a few explored the mountains, forests, and fertile
valleys throughout the West to the Pacific Ocean. They crossed into Spanish held and British
held territory. At first many Americans back in the East did not believe the stories of enormous
herds of bison, geysers that erupted hundreds of feet into the air, and trees so wide that car
tunnels were cut through that one can still drive through today!
With this push westward territories into the Louisiana Purchase started to meet the
requirements set forth in the Northwest Ordinance to become states. One of the most important
issues facing the United States as it expanded was slavery. Free northern states opposed the
addition of new slave states, giving the South control of the Senate and extending slavery into
the northern part of the Louisiana territory. Senator Tallmadge of New York proposed a bill that
would require Missouri to gradually eliminate slavery if admitted into the union as a state. At the
time there were already 11 free states and 11 slave states. Conversely, southern states feared that
the addition of free states would leave them at a political disadvantage. In 1819, a debate raged
in Congress over Missouri's application for statehood. Slave states and free states were equally
represented in the Senate, and Missouri's admission would disrupt the balance of power. In fact
both sides had members that issued threats and even Civil War. Senator Jesse B. Thomas of
Illinois proposed a bill calling for the admission of Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free
state. In addition, the southern boundary of Missouri, 36°30' N, would become a dividing line for
any new states admitted to the Union. All new states north of that line would be free states, while
those to the south would be slave states. Henry Clay who promoted the American System,
tirelessly worked both sides of the debate and would earn the nickname of "the great
compromiser" for helping the bill become reality. The bill was passed by Congress and signed
into law by President Monroe in 1820. It became known as the Missouri Compromise, and it
was designed to keep slave states and free states equally represented in Congress.
21. What was one of the most important issues facing the US as it expanded westward?
22. Why were northern states opposed to the admission of slave states into the Union?
23. Why were southern states opposed to the admission of free states into the Union?
24. Explain the Missouri Compromise (write the three provisions).
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5.03 THE RISE OF JACKSON
The Corrupt Bargain of 1824
More than any previous election, the presidential election of 1824 was evidence of the
sectional differences in the United States. New England backed the current Secretary of State,
John Quincy Adams, while the southern candidate was William Crawford of Georgia.
Meanwhile, both Henry Clay and Andrew Jackson were formidable western
candidates. Although Jackson and Clay were both from the West they did not agree with each
other. Jackson was not a supporter of the American System especially the Bank of the United
States (BUS). This election is often called the “Favorite Sons Election of 1824” because each
section was represented by a candidate that pursued the sectional issues instead of the national
issues. The election came down to Adams and Jackson and was so close that the House of
Representatives had to decide it. When Clay threw his support to Adams, it was enough to give
the son of former President John Adams the victory. Jackson and his followers soon protested,
however, when it was learned that Clay would be named Secretary of State. Jackson and his
supporters denounced it as a "corrupt bargain" made to give Adams the presidency.
25. Why was the election of 1824 called the "corrupt bargain"?
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John Quincy Adams’ Presidency
As president, John Quincy Adams proposed giving the federal government more control. He
hoped to expand the nation's roadways, build more canals, promote the arts and sciences, found a
national university, and continue the policy of protective tariffs. In the end, Adams fell victim to
sectionalism. His policies offended Southerners and those in the West because they were seen as
only favoring eastern business interests. Eventually, in 1828, Adams signed a new tariff into law.
Called by its opponents a "Tariff of Abomination" it became a key political issue that helped
Jackson defeat Adams in 1828.
26. What issue helped Andrew Jackson defeat John Q. Adams in the ]828 election?
Jackson Transforms the Presidency and America
In 1829, Andrew Jackson became the first man to rise from childhood poverty to become
president. Jackson's support for the common man and his form of politics was labeled
"Jacksonian Democracy." Under Jackson, property qualifications for suffrage (the right to
vote) were dropped in the states and "Universal White Male Suffrage" was established
allowing all white males of age, rich or poor to vote. The new political equality did not extend to
blacks, women, or Native Americans, however. States removed the property qualifications for
different reasons such as to attract more settlers that would in turn increase land sales, increase
the tax base, and increase political representation. Jackson fully supported these efforts. In
addition, Jackson openly allowed his friends and supporters to occupy high positions in
government. This policy became known as the spoils system, and set a precedent or pattern for
rewarding faithful supporters with government jobs. It ultimately led to corruption and a call for
reform in later administrations.
27. What does "Jacksonian Democracy" mean?
28. What was the effect of the spoils system?
Removal of the Eastern American Indians
As the United States entered the 1800s, Native American tribes were feeling the effects of US
expansion. One such tribe that was prominent in western North Carolina and northern Georgia
was the Cherokee. The Cherokee had assisted Andrew Jackson in his victory over the Creeks at
Horseshoe Bend. They had also adapted their way of life to accommodate white settlement more
than any other Native American people. Other tribes in the Southeast were similar in their
adaptation to “American ways” and were called the Five Civilized Tribes. The members were
the Cherokee, Choctaw, Seminole, Creek, and Chickasaw.
The Cherokee farmed, owned private land, and some even owned black slaves. One of
their most notable leaders, Sequoyah, eventually developed a Cherokee alphabet that was used to
publish the tribes' own newspaper. When gold was discovered on Cherokee land in Georgia,
however, the US government took action to move the tribe and claim their territory for white
settlement. It seemed that the “American Dream” did not include American Indians-again.
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29. In spite of the Cherokee's willingness to help the US government fight other Native
American tribes and their willingness to adapt their way of life to accommodate white
settlement, what was the US government's policy toward the Cherokee once gold was found on
their land?
30. What Cherokee leader developed a Cherokee alphabet that was used to publish its own
newspaper?
In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act. This law authorized the removal of
the Cherokee and several other tribes from the southeast United States. Desperate, the Cherokee
appealed to the US Supreme Court for help. In the case of Worchester v. Georgia (1832), the
Court ruled that the Cherokee had a right to remain on their land and could not be forcibly
removed. President Andrew Jackson disregarded the Court's decision, however, and sent troops
to round up and move the Cherokee. The very people who had saved Jackson at Horseshoe Bend
were now forced to march 800 miles to reservations in Oklahoma. Over one quarter of the
Cherokee people died from disease, starvation, and exposure to the bitter cold during the
journey. Their march became known among the Cherokee people as the Trail of Tears.
31. Explain the Indian Removal Act of 1830.
32. Explain the Supreme Court case Worchester v. Georgia (1832).
33. What President refused to enforce the Supreme Court ruling in Worchester v. Georgia?
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34. Describe the Trail of Tears.
5.04 The National Bank Debate and the Resurgence of States Rights
The South Carolina Nullification Crisis
To repeat after the war of 1812 the British tried to destroy the infant American
manufacturing sector. In response the American System attempted to make America more selfsufficient. You may remember that one aspect of the American System was a higher protective
tariff such as the one that was passed in 1816. As time went on, Congress raised the tariff in
1824 and again in 1828. Jackson's vice president John C Calhoun called the tariff of 1828 "the
Tariff of Abominations." The tariff negatively impact in the South because it decreased the
amount of imported finished product from Britain and forced Southerners to buy more expensive
northern made products. Many Southerners believed that they were paying for the growing
prosperity of the North but getting nothing in return.
President Jackson experienced a serious test when South Carolina began protesting the
high tariff on British goods. John C. Calhoun took center stage when he wrote a pamphlet
entitled, "Exposition and Protest." In it, Calhoun argued that the states could refuse to enforce
any law it saw as unconstitutional (harkening back to the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions and
the doctrine of nullification). He even suggested that South Carolina would have the right to
secede (leave the Union) if the offensive tariffs were not repealed.
In 1830 the tariff and the underlying theory of states rights was debated by Senators
Robert Hayne of South Carolina and Daniel Webster of Massachusetts. In this debate Hayne
declared that the federal government was on course to destroying the South. Webster could not
think of a middle course regarding the tariff issue that a state may take. In other words Webster
stated that either a state such as South Carolina had to submit to the will of the federal
government or openly rebel. The Hayne-Webster debate captivated the nation and voters
wanted to know which side Andrew Jackson was on. On April 13, 1830 at a public dinner
Andrew Jackson publicly proclaimed "Our Union: it must be preserved." John C Calhoun rose
next and publicly proclaimed "the Union, next to our liberty, the most dear; may we all
remember that it can only be preserved by respecting the rights of the states and distributing
equally the benefit and burden of the Union." This event mark a serious fallout between Jackson
and Calhoun in which Calhoun would resign the vice presidency in 1832 and Jackson would
name Martin Van Buren as his running mate in that election.
In 1832 Congress passed another tariff that South Carolina protested. The South Carolina
legislature nullified the tariffs of 1828 in 1832. Even further, the South Carolinians threatened to
secede if customs officials tried to collect the tariff. Enraged, Jackson prepared to call up federal
troops if necessary to force South Carolina's compliance (to obey). Jackson persuaded Congress
to pass the Force Bill of 1833 that allowed the use of the Army and Navy against South
Carolina. Fortunately, Senator Henry Clay proposed a compromise (i.e. Compromise Tariff of
1833) that both sides could accept. Clay's compromise ended the South Carolina Nullification
Crisis, but the issues of states' rights and secession remained alive until the end of the Civil War.
34. In the pamphlet "Exposition and Protest", what did John C. Calhoun argue?
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35. What caused the South Carolina Nullification Crisis and what ended it?
The National Bank and Growing Sectionalism
Southerners tended to believe that the federal government should restrict itself to powers
specifically stated in the Constitution (enumerated or delegated powers), and that all else should
be left to the states. They believed that they could refuse to enforce, federal laws they saw as
unconstitutional or harmful (i.e. doctrine of nullification). Northerners were more prone to
support a strong central government as the ultimate authority. Southerners opposed tariffs like
those proposed by Clay because they raised the price on manufactured imports and invited other
countries to impose tariffs of their own. Such actions hurt the South's ability to sell cotton and
other agricultural products overseas. Northerners, however, supported tariffs because they made
imports more expensive and their own products more attractive to consumers. Clay's Vision for
the national bank turned out to be less than perfect, also. With the additional credit that the new
bank offered, many US citizens began borrowing money and moving west. In 1819, when banks
in Great Britain demanded that US banks repay British loans, US banks in turn recalled (asked
for repayment) their loans to US citizens. As a result, many people rushed to withdraw their
money. Known as The Panic of 1819, it led to the nation's first depression.
36. Why did the" American System" lead to sectionalism?
37. What caused "The Panic of 1819"?
Whether or not there should be a national bank had always been an issue of debate. In
1819, Chief Justice John Marshall and the Supreme Court ruled in McCullough v. Maryland that
Congress did have the power to incorporate a bank under the necessary and proper clause of
the Constitution. Regardless, President Jackson had always opposed a national bank and had no
plans to renew its charter when it expired in 1836. Knowing this, his political enemies
convinced the bank to apply for renewal four years early, thus making the bank the key issue in
the election of 1832.
Successfully portraying the bank as existing only to "aid the rich and the powerful,"
Jackson won re-election. He then issued a "Bank Veto" and ordered all government funds
removed from the national bank and placed in selected state banks. These state banks came to be
called "pet banks" because of the favor they were shown. The increase in funds led these "pet
banks" to give loans more easily. The value of the loans was far greater than the amount of
available gold reserves, however, and this caused inflation. Jackson tried to control the problem,
but his policies only made things worse. The result was the Panic of 1837 and another
depression. A number of state banks closed, leaving many in the US flat broke.
38. Why was the renewal of the National Bank a key issue during the election of 1832?
39. What negative effect did Jackson's "pet banks" have on the nation's economy?
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Political Fallout from Jacksonian Democracy
Some “Democrats” as Jackson now identified his party, grew discontented at Jackson’s
heavy-handed nature and sometimes explosive temper. Jackson strengthened the Executive
Branch but at what expense his critics argued? Jackson used his veto power more than any
previous President including the re-charter of the National Bank and federal funding to build the
National Road. Some started to refer to him as “King Andrew.” In 1834 Henry Clay, John
Quincy Adams, and Daniel Webster formed the Whig Party. The Whig platform (beliefs)
included Clay’s American System and a nationally accepted currency.
40. What party was formed in opposition to Andrew Jackson?
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41. Why did critics of Andrew Jackson call him “King Andrew”?
42. What was the Whig Party platform?
Van Buren’s Presidency
Jackson followed Washington’s precedent and declared that he would not run for a third
term. The Democrats nominated Jackson’s vice president Martin Van Buren from New York.
The Whigs ran three candidates against Van Buren hoping to cause the election to go into the
House of Representatives believing that no one candidate would receive the majority of Electoral
College votes. This plan backfired and in 1836 Van Buren won the Presidency.
Before Jackson left office some of the “pet banks” became “wildcat banks” and printed
more paper money than they held in gold. This made the value of the paper money fall rapidly.
Moreover these banks made risky loans to speculators (people who make risky investments in
such things as land hoping the value will rise resulting in a profit) who used the paper money to
buy land from the government. The government then started to hold large amounts of paper
money whose value was decreasing. Jackson noticed this and issued the specie circular that
stated that only hard currency such as gold and silver could be used to purchase land. This
created a bank rush in which people ran to the pet banks to exchange their paper money for gold.
This only made the problem worse and caused the valued of the paper money to drop even
further.
43. Who became President after Andrew Jackson?
44. How did the “pet banks” damage the American economy?
45. What was the effect of Jackson’s specie circular upon the economy?
In May of 1837, the banks in New York refused to accept any more paper currency. This
had a “ripple effect” upon the economy as credit and money supply tightened. Soon many banks
themselves went out of business taking with them thousands of investors and hundreds of
businesses. This resulted in the Panic of 1837. Unemployment skyrocketed as businesses failed
and speculators lost their investments. More than 1/3 of the country became unemployed. Van
Buren cut back on federal spending but this made the panic worse. Van Buren convinced
Congress to establish an independent treasury that would only use hard currency (gold and
silver). This only made the economy worse. Soon many in the country called Martin Van BurenMartin “Van Ruin.”
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A Political cartoon showing bank runs, poverty, homelessness, drunkenness and open
prostitution resulting from the Panic of 1837. Van Buren is symbolized as the top hat.
46. What was the impact of the Panic of 1837 upon the US?
Election of 1840
In 1840 the Democratic Party nominated Van Buren for reelection against Whig party
candidate William Henry Harrison. The Whigs portrayed Harrison who was a war hero as a
man of the people. They portrayed him as being born in a log cabin. The Whigs portrayed Van
Buren as being an aristocrat but in reality Van Buren was more of a common man than Harrison
who lived in a 16 room mansion. This election was called the Hard Cider and Log Cabin
campaign. As the candidates and their supporters traveled from town to town, they needed to
prove that they were indeed part of the Common Man. Instead of expensive whiskey potential
voters were given the alcoholic drink of the common man, hard cider. Harrison won but to prove
that he was still strong and able he gave his inaugural address during a cold rain in Washington
DC. As a result, he started to implement the Whig platform but died one month after his
inauguration of pneumonia.
47. Who won the presidential campaign of 1840 and what party did he belong to?
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48. How did the Whigs portray Harrison during the campaign of 1840?
John Tyler became president after Harrison's death. He was put on the ticket to attract
some votes in the South. When he became president however, he refused to implement the Whig
platform. As a result, the Whig party disavowed themselves of Tyler because he actually
supported the Democratic Party platform.
49. Why was the Whig party angry at John Tyler?
5.05 RELIGIOUS REVIVAL AND THE ANTEBELLUM REFORM MOVEMENT
The period from 1797 to 1859 saw a revival of religion in the United States called the
Second Great Awakening. (The first Great Awakening peaked during the 1740s in colonial
America.) Fiery preachers like Charles G Finney, would travel about inspiring Christians with
religious enthusiasm. Often they preached in meetings held outside, called "tent meetings" or
"revivals." Two religious denominations that were associated with the "common man"
flourished and attracted great numbers of converts. They were the Baptists and Methodists. They
emphasized a personal commitment to God through the Gospel of Jesus Christ and taught that,
through the good works of believers, society could be changed for the better. This religious zeal
became the motivation behind many people's increased involvement in social causes and reform
movements that were intended to transform society in beneficial ways.
50. What effect did the Second Great Awakening have on society?
The Second Great Awakening also resulted in Christianity brought a large-scale to
enslave African-Americans. Within the religious movement, there was an underlying theme of
spiritual equality regardless if a person was black or white. Slaves in the South were segregated
into different benches but often attended the same church as their owners. Both heard the same
sermons and saying the same songs. African-Americans tended to interpret the sermons as
promoting the promise of freedom from slavery. The owners often interpreted the sermons as
justifying their place in society and their ownership of slaves.
51. What impact did the Second Great Awakening have upon slaves in the South?
In the north, separate black churches were founded such as the African Methodist
Episcopal Church. In these churches the sermons often centered upon strengthening ones
beliefs as well as fighting against slavery. The African-American churches in the north grew
rapidly and provided Sunday schools that taught reading, writing, and arithmetic that was often
denied to free blacks in the north. The African-American churches develop a political voice and
organized the first black national convention in 1830. During this convention the participants
agreed to explore the possible settlement of free African-Americans and fugitive slaves in
Canada. The African-American churches fostered a sense of community and support within the
black community.
52. What impact did the Second Great Awakening have upon African-Americans in the North?
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Transcendentalism
The first half of the 19th century also saw the rise of a literary and philosophical
movement called Transcendentalism. This movement emphasized individualism and selfreliance, rather than religious faith. Believing that there was an element of human nature beyond
understanding, transcendentalists felt that human fulfillment came through an awareness of truth
and natural beauty. They were also critical of conformity, and believed that each individual
should follow their own path of understanding. Essayist and poet Ralph Waldo Emerson,
advised readers to be more self-reliant, to lead noble lives, and to seek truth and beauty. Writer
and philosopher, Henry David Thoreau, a student of nature, believed in simple living and selfreliance. His famous book, Walden, describes his experiences and observations while living in
the woods. Both Emerson and Thoreau were among the more famous members of this
movement. Both men also believed in the concept of civil disobedience (using nonviolent
protest to change immoral or unjust laws).
Unitarianism emphasized reason and conscience as paths to perfection quickly grew and
attracted many wealthy and educated citizens in New England. The Unitarians contrasted with
the Baptist and Methodist traveling preachers in that the Unitarians believed that conversion was
a slow and gradual process. The Unitarians also believed that the individual and social reform
were both important.
53. Describe the American movement called Transcendentalism.
54. Who were the two most famous Transcendentalists?
55. What belief did the Unitarians share with the Baptists and Methodists?
UTOPIAN COMMUNITIES
At the same time that many reformers were working to change society, a few people tried
to establish different societies altogether. Referred to as Utopian communities, these societies
were attempts to establish communities that were "perfect" both socially and politically. One of
the most famous was New Harmony in Indiana. Founded in 1825, it was meant to be a place
where people would share everything and live "in harmony." Other examples of these
communities included Oneida and Brook Farm. Oneida became known for founder John
Noyes' teaching that every man in the community was "married" to every woman. This belief
was known as "complex marriage" or "free love", and basically meant that any male member of
the community could have sexual relations with any female member.
Brook Farm, meanwhile, was a transcendentalist community and was founded on the
Socialist beliefs of Charles Fourier. Attracting top intellectuals like Nathaniel Hawthorne and
Henry David Thoreau, it was meant to be a community that relied on agriculture and in which
members shared everything. Unfortunately, these communities did not take into account human
nature. Prone to laziness, selfishness and quarreling, they failed largely because they were not
practical or were their goals realistic.
The Shakers also constructed separate communities but based upon religious belief. The
Shakers followed the teachings of Mother Ann Lee. The Shakers believe that men and women
were equal and refused to fight for any reason. The Shakers were celibate and therefore
depended upon people to convert. Sometimes a child was left at their doorsteps and they would
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be raised in the Shaker tradition. At their height there were several Shaker communities
throughout New England and the Midwest. Shakers believed that they could demonstrate their
faithfulness through their hard work and producing the highest possible quality items. By the
1840s the Shakers had over 6000 members but by 2015 there were only three Shakers left in the
United States.
56. What were the goals of Utopian Communities?
57. How were the Shakers different from the utopian communities?
Antebellum Reform Movements
EDUCATIONAL REFORM, PRISON REFORM, AND THE MENTALLY DISABLED
Horace Mann was an influential American educator who advocated the education of
both men and women through public schools. He believed that education was essential to the
success of democracy. Mann believed that education would be the great equalizer in America
and open up doors of opportunity. He helped to create the state Board of Education in
Massachusetts, the first of its kind in the United States. Horace Mann developed a teacher
training program to ensure that trained teachers were in the schools. Furthermore, Horace Mann
developed a core curriculum that's centered upon reading, writing, mathematics, and history.
This core curriculum is still found in American public schools today. During this time the North
would see extensive growth in schools because literate workers were needed in the factories and
the German and Irish immigrants who were coming to America needed to learn what it meant to
be an American.
During this time women would play a key role in reform movements and education
reform was not any different. In the North, Emma Willard opened the Troy Female Seminary.
In 1837 Mary Lyon founded Mount Holyoke Seminary in Massachusetts. Despite widespread
public opposition Oberlin College in Ohio admitted four women to its four year degree program
and became the first coeducational institution in the nation. Additionally, women were pushing
beyond the cult of domesticity such as Elizabeth Blackwell who was the first woman to
graduate from medical college and opened up a hospital for women and children in New York.
Catherine Beecher, daughter of preacher Lyman Beecher, led a campaign for improved
women’s health.
During the 19th century, states began building prisons for the purposes of rehabilitation
(helping prisoners become law-abiding citizens) rather than simply punishing criminals with
floggings (beatings) or putting them in the public stocks. Dorothea Dix became a great advocate
for both prison reform (changing how prisoners are treated and the conditions under which
prisons are administered) and the rights of the mentally disabled. In 1841, Dix visited a
Massachusetts jail and noticed that mentally disabled people were being housed with hardened
criminals. Her protests and efforts led to the establishment of several institutions and hospitals
for the mentally ill.
58. Which reformers wanted to change public education, prisons, and mental institutions?
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TEMPERANCE AND THE WOMEN'S RIGHTS MOVEMENTS
During the early nineteenth century, the temperance movement began gaining
popularity. Members of this movement wanted to moderate the use of alcohol. Later, they
advocated total abstinence (to stop using) from alcohol and succeeded in convincing several
states to pass laws prohibiting its sale. Women had participated in the abolitionist and
temperance movements, only to face discrimination from the men with whom they'd served.
Amelia Bloomer was such an active temperance leader and she invented a type of undergarment
for women called “bloomers” that allowed women more freedom than the corset and even pants!
Men ridiculed Bloomer viciously but her undergarment allowed women to take a more active
role in the industrial economy and society. Many men felt threatened by women such as these
and often reacted viciously even to the extent of physical violence and abuse. The offense these
women suffered led to the birth of the Women's Rights Movement.
Women such as Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton helped organize the first
women's rights convention, known as the Seneca Falls Conference, in 1848, Between 100 and
300 people attended, including Frederick Douglass. During the conference, the Declaration of
Sentiments and Resolutions was drafted calling for equal rights for women. Stanton
also used the occasion to call for women to be given the right to vote. Although some felt
Stanton went too far by demanding suffrage, the conference went a long way in drawing
attention to the issue of women's rights.
59. What was the goal of the Temperance movement?
60. Who were the leaders of the Seneca Falls Conference?
61. What were the goals of the Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions?
Two other key figures were Susan B. Anthony and a former slave named Sojourner
Truth. A supporter of both the temperance and abolitionist movements, Anthony is best known
for joining with Elizabeth Cady Stanton to fight for women's rights. An active supporter of a
woman's right to vote, Anthony would often deliver speeches written by Stanton while Stanton
was busy with her young children. Truth, on the other hand, had been born into slavery but was
freed once New York emancipated slaves in 1828. Though illiterate, she became well known and
respected for her eloquent and charismatic speaking (i.e. "Ain't I Am A Woman" speech). She
had impact in the abolitionist movement as well as the movement for women's rights.
62. What other two women were key members of the Women's Right Movement?
THE ABOLITIONIST MOVEMENT
In the 1830s, the abolitionist movement gained momentum despite being seen by most as
a movement of fanatics. As always, slavery remained a hot topic in the nation. The South found
itself dependent on the practice for economic support, while in the North a movement to abolish
slavery was growing. White members of this movement were mostly middle class, educated,
church people from New England. Many members were Quakers, who believed that all
people are equal in the eyes of God and that slavery was evil. Black abolitionists were mostly
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former slaves. Among key white figures in this movement were William Lloyd Garrison and
the Grimke sisters. Garrison founded an influential, anti-slavery newspaper called The
Liberator in 1831 and helped establish the American Anti-Slavery
Society. Meanwhile Sarah and Angelina Grimke were members of a prominent slaveholding
family in South Carolina who became abolitionists and won national acclaim for their passionate
anti-slavery speeches.
63. What religious group was known for its early protests against slavery?
64. What abolitionist used his new1ipaper "The Liberator" to protest the institution of slavery?
Important African-American abolitionists included Frederick Douglass and David
Walker. Born a free black man in Wilmington, NC in the late 1700s, Walker witnessed the
cruelty of slavery in the South with his own eyes. He eventually made his way to Boston, where
he wrote a pamphlet entitled, Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World, in 1829. He would
place copies of his work in the pockets of pants he was selling to sailors returning to southern
ports. His efforts and untimely death (most people believe he was murdered) made him an early
hero of the movement. Even more famous was Douglass. After escaping slavery in Maryland, he
educated himself and became the most prominent African-American speaker for the abolition of
slavery. He also published the anti-slavery newspaper "North Star".
65. Which abolitionists played a key role during the 1830s?
5.06 CHANGES BROUGHT ABOUT BY INDUSTRIALIZATION AND REFORM
A United States Culture Evolves
Throughout the first half of the 19th century, the new nation began to see its own national
culture displayed in art, literature and language, thereby producing a new sense of nationalism (a
devotion to one's country). Even the neoclassical architecture of the day showed the confidence
citizens had in their young country. Particularly common in Washington, DC and the South, it
imitated the architectural styles of ancient Greece and Rome, and suggested that the US was
destined for similar greatness. Examples of neoclassical architecture included the White House,
the US Capitol and Thomas Jefferson's home at Monticello.
Even those from outside the United States were beginning to take note of US culture. In
his famed work, Democracy in America, French traveler and writer Alex de Tocqueville
praised the young nation's political system and called the United States a land of opportunity
where, "most of the rich men were formerly poor."
66. How did the French traveler, Alex de Tocqueville describe the US culture?
Language, Art, And Literature
The early part of the 1800s saw the publication of Noah Webster's first Webster s Dictionary.
It was published in 1806 and was significant because it modified the traditional British spelling,
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usage, and pronunciation of many words. In effect, it helped to create a distinctly "American"
language. Art and literature began to reflect a national culture as well. The Hudson River
School of Artists, which flourished from 1825 until the late 1800s, was the first group of US
artists to develop a uniquely US style of landscape painting. Unlike the traditional European
landscapes that tended to feature peaceful countrysides, the Hudson School featured canyons,
rivers, and scenes of the untamed frontier. It was art that reflected the wild and pioneering spirit
of the United States itself .
67. What type of paintings reflected a national culture?
The period also saw the emergence of many great writers. Washington Irving was the
first US author to win international praise and would influence future writers with stories like
Rip Van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow. He was representative of a group of writers
known as the Knickerbocker School. Edgar Allen Poe achieved fame as one of the nation's
greatest poets, short story writers, and literary critics. Poe's poem The Raven was well known.
Poe was celebrated as representing a unique nationalistic literary interpretation. Other great,
writers included Nathaniel Hawthorne and James Fennimore Cooper; Cooper's five novel
series, The Leatherstocking Tales, which included the classic The Last of the Mohicans,
depicted life on the American frontier and tackled the issue of white settlement on Native
American lands. Cooper was known as a romanticist writer As a result, Cooper's works were
considered to he the first truly "American" novels. Meanwhile, Hawthorne wrote works like
The Scarlet Letter, which depicted life in Puritan New England.
68. Which Authors reflected a national culture with their writings and what were their key
works?
Immigration and Nativism
Between 1825 and 1855, more than 5 million immigrants (mostly from northern Europe)
entered the United States. These immigrants would be referred to as the “old” immigrants since
they were in the first large movement into the country. The Irish came over in large numbers due
to oppressive British policies and the resulting potato famine. They arrived poor and mostly
settled in the northeastern cities where they started to replace the young women who worked in
the factories. The Germans came over in large numbers due to political instability. They tended
to possess more money and therefore purchased farmland in the Midwest/ Great Lakes region.
Cities such as Milwaukee soon became home to dozens of breweries. These immigrants tended
to settle together in poorer neighborhoods where they would preserve the language and customs
of their previous country. Many of them were Roman Catholics, and therefore aroused the
concerns of European Protestants. While industries of the North came to depend on immigrants
for cheap labor, many northern natives (people born in the US) resented the newcomers taking
jobs that otherwise would have gone to US citizens.
Such feelings led to the rise of Nativism. Nativists opposed immigration in order to protect the
interests of native-born citizens. As a result, immigrants often suffered discrimination and
violence. During the 1840s and 50s, many groups formed as part of this movement. The most
powerful of these groups was a secret society called the Know-Nothings.
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Its name came from the practice of members saying, "I know nothing" when they were asked
about the group. In the 1850s, Know-Nothing (American Party) candidates actually won some
state elections. By 1861, however, the party had no representation in Congress and soon
disappeared from the political scene.
69.What is Nativism?
70. What political party arose out of the fear of immigrants?
5.07 WESTWARD MOVEMENT AND SECTIONALISM
Texas: Independence And Annexation
In 1821, Mexico gained independence from Spain. Not long afterwards, Stephen Austin
led a group of US settlers to Texas, which was now part of the new Mexican nation. Mexico
opened the door to Texas for settlement because they were very aware of the US push West and
the American idea of Manifest Destiny. Americans began to believe that God gave them the
special right and mission to expand throughout the continent to the Pacific Ocean
regardless of whether or not people/cultures/civilizations were already there. Mexico
expected these American settlers to become Mexicans and respect Mexican law. Many of the
American settlers brought their slaves with them and slavery was already abolished after Mexico
became independent. Furthermore, Roman Catholicism was the official religion of Mexico and
most American settlers were Protestant. Lastly, many of the American settlers refused to
assimilate (adopt) Mexican culture and customs. Some American settlers refused to pay their
taxes as well.
In 1834, General Antonio Santa Anna assumed power over the Mexican government
and tightened his control over US settlers in the region. In response, a Texan named Sam
Houston led the settlers in a rebellion. On March 2, 1836, a convention of Texas delegates
declared the territory to be an independent republic. Santa Anna answered with military force
and, on March 6, a small group of Texans took their stand against the Mexican leader at an old
mission called The Alamo. Despite the Texans' brave resistance, Santa Anna's forces were too
strong. Every Texan who fought at the Alamo perished (died) in the battle (among them,
the famed Davy Crockett and his Tennessee volunteers). After a series of battles, the Texans
eventually defeated Santa Anna and took him hostage. In exchange for his freedom, the Mexican
leader promised to recognize the Republic of Texas and withdraw his forces back below the Rio
Grande River. Wanting to become part of the United States, in 1836, Texas asked to be annexed
(made part of) by the United States. President Andrew Jackson was in favor of
annexing Texas, but he could not overcome northern opposition. Northerners knew that Texas
would be admitted as a slave state. They also feared that, because of its large size, the area might
be divided into several slave states. Texas remained an independent nation until 1845. Texans
often refer to this period as the Lone Star Republic. As an independent republic, Texas
developed a system of government, cotton production, and even foreign relations with Great
Britain and France
71. Describe the events leading up to the Alamo.
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72. What was the main reason Congress (northern states) refused to admit Texas into the Union
in 1836?
73. When would Texas eventually be annexed (made part of) by the United States?
Election Of 1844
The annexation of Texas was a critical issue in the election of 1844. As a result, the
Democratic Party split and James K. Polk became the first "dark horse" (unexpected winner)
presidential nominee in US history. Polk took a strong stand as the Democratic candidate and
was a big supporter of the concept of "Manifest Destiny" (the belief that it was God's will for
settlers to acquire the land from the Atlanta Ocean to the Pacific Ocean). Polk called for the
annexation of both Texas and Oregon. Meanwhile, Whig candidate Henry Clay tried to avoid the
issue. In the election, a number of Whigs from New York cast their votes for James G. Birney of
the anti-slavery Liberty party. This cost Clay much needed support and allowed Polk to win the
election.
In the spring of 1844, President John Tyler failed in his effort to push a treaty through
Congress that would have annexed Texas. Polk's victory, however, convinced the outgoing
president that voters wanted Texas admitted to the Union. In the last days of his term, Tyler
called for a joint resolution of Congress admitting Texas to the Union. Congress passed the
resolution and admitted Texas as a slave state in 1845. During his tenure, U.S. President James
K. Polk oversaw the greatest expansion in the size of the United States to date. Polk
accomplished this through the annexation of Texas in 1845, the negotiation of the Oregon
Treaty with Great Britain in 1846, and the conclusion of the Mexican- American War in 1848,
which ended with the signing and ratification of the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo in 1848.
These events brought within the control of the United States the future states of Texas,
California, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Washington State, and Oregon, as well as
portions of what would later become Oklahoma, Colorado, Kansas, Wyoming, and Montana.
74. What future states were brought under the control of the US during President Polk's term?
Annexation Of Oregon (1846)
With the question of Texas settled, Polk turned his attention to acquiring Oregon. In 1827, the
US and Great Britain had reaffirmed their agreement at the Convention of 1818 to occupy the
Oregon territory jointly. Beginning in 1843, thousands of US settlers moved to Oregon seeking a
better life. President Polk approached Britain, arguing that the US had rightful claim to the
territory up to 54°40'N. Thus arose the slogan, "54-40, or fight!" Polk's aggressive tone
irritated the British, but they were ready to give up Oregon because the territory was no longer
profitable. Furthermore, the United States had become an important consumer of British goods,
leading Britain to desire friendly terms with the US. The United States accepted the Treaty of
1846 declaring the 49th parallel as the official boundary between Canada and the United States.
Thus, in 1846 Oregon became a US territory.
75.What other country occupied the Oregon territory?
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76. What slogan did settlers, wanting to move to Oregon for a better life, use?
77.What did the Treaty of1846 declare?
The Mexican-American War (1846-1848)
Mexico considered the United States' annexation of Texas to be an act of aggression. This
did not deter President Polk who, along with many members of Congress, believed in Manifest
Destiny (the idea that it is God's will for the US to expand and possess territory from the Atlantic
Ocean all the way to the Pacific Ocean). In June of 1845, Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor
to lead his troops to the Texas border to protect Texas from a Mexican invasion. He also sent
John Slidell to Mexico to settle the disputes over the US-Mexico border and negotiate
for the purchase of California and New Mexico. After the Mexican president refused to meet
with Slidell, Polk ordered Taylor to move into the disputed territory between the Nueces and
Rio Grande rivers. In response, Mexican troops crossed the Rio Grande and attacked Taylor's
forces. Immediately, Polk demanded that Congress declare war on Mexico proclaiming that the
Mexicans had "shed American blood on American soil." Though some representatives such as
Abraham Lincoln, Northern Whigs, and Transcendentalists disagreed, Congress passed a
declaration of war on May 13, 1846. The war was a series of US victories leading up to
September 14, 1847, when General Winfield Scott finally marched his troops into Mexico City
and forced Mexico to surrender. After months of negotiations, the US and Mexico finally ended
the war with the Treaty of Guadalupe- Hidalgo on February 2,1848.
The treaty called for the Mexican Cession (giving up) of the New Mexico and
California territories to the United States in exchange for $15 million in cash. The Mexican
Cession formed the states of California, Nevada, and Utah, most of Arizona, and parts of New
Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming. The acquisition of these territories all but completed the
continental expansion envisioned by those who believed in Manifest Destiny.
78. What belief drove President James Polk to acquire land like Texas and Oregon?
79. What is Manifest Destiny?
80. Why did Polk send General Zachary Taylor to the Texas border?
81. What was the result of the Mexican president refusing to meet with John Slidell?
82. What was the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo?
83. What states did the US acquire from the Mexican Cession?
The Wilmot Proviso (1846)
Even before the war with Mexico was over, it became evident that the issue of slavery
would once again be a major problem. Victory in the war would mean new territories and the
question of whether or not they should allow slavery. In the summer of 1846, a Pennsylvania
congressman named David Wilmot put forth what would come to be known as the Wilmot
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Proviso. This proviso, or condition, proposed banning slavery from any land purchased from
Mexico (Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo). It was embraced by Northerners but denounced in the
South. It was voted down, but it reopened the debate about slavery and exposed serious sectional
divisions in the country.
84. What did the Wilmot Proviso state?
85.What was the result of Wilmot Proviso?
California Becomes a State (1850)
In 1848, gold was discovered just north of Sacramento, California. The following year,
gold seekers came from all over the world as part of the California Gold Rush of 1848. These
new arrivals came to be known as "49ers," and they served to rapidly increase California's
population. This growth produced a need for stable government almost overnight. For this
reason, when the debate over slavery prevented Congress from organizing the territory,
Californians took matters into their own hands by drafting and approving a state constitution.
Finally, thanks to the Compromise of 1850, Congress admitted California as a free state on
September 9, 1850.
86. In 1848, what was discovered in California?
87. What did the discovery of gold in California lead to?
88. What were new arrivals to California looking for gold called?
89. What agreement admitted California into the Union as a free state in 1850?
Gadsden Purchase (1853)
In 1853, boundary disputes with Mexico still remained. President Franklin Pierce sent
James Gadsden to settle the problem and to purchase land for a southern transcontinental
railroad. The Gadsden Purchase gave the United States parts of present day New Mexico and
Arizona in exchange for $10 million.
90. Why did President Franklin Pierce send James Gadsden to Mexico in 1853?
91. What territories did the US acquire with the Gadsden Purchase?