Download Chapter 8 pages 143-146

Chapter 8 pages 143-146
1. Animal and
life is too complicated a problem for human intelligence o solve, and
we can never know how wide a circle of disturbance we produce in the harmonies when we
throw the smallest pebble into the ocean of organic life.
2. Biological communities differ in their
, the types and number of species they
contain, and the
their species play.
3.
and
affect the species diversity in communities.
4. The number of species on an island is determined by how fast
arrive and old species
become
, the island, and how
it is from the mainland.
Chapter 8 pages 147-150
1. What are indicator species?2. Why are birds excellent biological indicators?3. Name five factors that scientists believe are causing a decline in frog populations
4. What are keystone species?5. What are foundation species?6. What is interspecific competition?7. How have some species reduced or avoided competition?8. Define resource partitioning.
1. Chapter 8 pages 151-156
2. In _____________, members of one species feed directly on all or part of a living organism of
another species
3. ________________, occurs when one species feeds on part of anther organism usually by
living on or in the host
4. In _______________, two species interact in a way that benefit both
5. _____________________ is a species interaction that benefits one species but has little, if
any, effect on the other species.
Pages 153-161
1.
List the ways in which prey escape their predators.
2. Some prey species discourage predators with chemicals that are ___________ ,
__________ , __________ ___________ , and or _______ ___________ .
3.
Define bioprospectors:
4. What are Edward O. Wilson’s two rules for evaluating possible dangers from an
unknown animal species?
5. List two animals that use behavioral strategies to avoid predation and how they
use it.
6.
In parasitism, the __________ benefits while the ____________ is harmed.
7.
_____________ is when two species that interact in a way that benefits both.
8.
A species that benefits from nutritional mutualism is ______________.
9. In gut inhabitant mutualism, vast armies of _____________ such as
_____________ live in an animal’s ______________ tract.
10. See figure 8-10 on page 155. Sketch your own example of one of the four listed
relationships.
_____________________ is a species interaction that benefits one species but has
little, if any, effect on the other species.
1. The small herb called _________________________ is a good example of
commensalism. It benefits from growing in the shade of the redwood trees
without negatively effecting the redwood trees.
What is ecological succession?
Ecologists recognize two types of ecological succession. What are they?
__________ succession: gradual establishment of biotic communities on nearly
lifeless ground. Usually takes a very long time.
2.
_____________ succession: biotic communities that are established where
some type of biotic community is already present. Usually more
common.14. During primary succession, some species ___________ an area and
their populations become more , whereas populations of other species decline and
may even disappear.
3.
Soil formation begins when hardy __________________ attach themselves to
inhospitable patches of ________________.
What are small perennial grass?
These early successional _______ species grow close to the ground, can establish
______ populations quickly under harsh conditions, and have short lives.
Less hardy mid-successional plant species of _______, __________, and low shrubs.
______ successional plant species (mostly trees) can tolerate shade.
Secondary succession’s candidates include what?
Focuses on changes in ___________. Changes in turn affect food and _________ for
various types of animals.
As succession proceeds , the numbers and types of animals and decomposers also
change.
Look at Figure 8-12
a.
What does the young pine forest turn into?
b.
What is the natural capital?
PAGES 194-202
Between 1850 and 1900 an estimated __________ gray wolves were shot, trapped and
poisoned by ranchers, hunters and government employees to make the West safe for
livestock.
In 1974, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) listed the gray wolf as ___________
in all 48 lower states except Minnesota.
Gray wolves played important roles in the West. The wolves culled herds of bison, elk,
caribou, and mule deer, and kept down _______ population.
In 1987, the USFWS proposed reintroducing the wolves into the Yellowstone
ecosystem. Ranchers feared they would attack their _______ and sheep. Other protests
came from hunters who feared the wolves would kill too many __________ animals.
Population growth, economic development, and ________ are exerting increasing
pressure on the world’s forest, grasslands, parks, wilderness, and other ____________
storehouses of biodiversity.
Using Figure 11-3, list TWO factors that increase biodiversity and TWO factors the
decrease biodiversity:
Increase:


Decrease:


According to the results of a 2002 study on the impact of the human ecological footprint
on the earth’s land, we have disturbed to some extent at least ______ and probably
about ______ of the earth’s land surface (excluding Antarctica and Greenland).
In the U.S. at least ________ of the virgin forests in the lower 48 states have been
________________ for lumber & to make room for ________________,
________________, and industry.
_______ of tallgrass prairie in the Midwest and Great Plains has disappeared, & _______
of California’s native grassland and ______ of its original redwood forests are gone.
Humans use, ____________, or ____________ about 10-15% of the net primary
productivity of a planets terrestrial ecosystems.
Biodiversity has two types of value: The ________________ or ________________ value
and the ____________________ value.
What are the two major types of instrumental value?
Draw figure 11-5
____________________ __________________ is the multidisciplinary science that
originated in the 1970’s.
Its goal is to use __________________ responses to slow down the rate at which we are
__________________ and degrading the earths biodiversity.
Conservation Biologists __________________ the most ___________________ and
species-rich ecosystems, called ________ ___________.
_____________________ is the applied science of managing, analyzing, and
communicating biological information.
More than a ____________ of the land in the U.S. consists of publically owned national
forests, resource lands, parks, wildlife refuges, and protected wilderness areas.
The federal government manages roughly _________ of the country’s land.
About _______ of this federal public land is in Alaska.
Another _______ is in the western states.
________________ ________________ ______________ consists of 155 forests and 22
grasslands.
What are these forests used for?
Who is the National Resource Lands managed by?
Those lands are used primarily for _______________, oil and gas extraction, and
________________ grazing.
A third system consists of __________ National Wildlife Refuges that are managed by
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS).
What is managed by the National Park Service (NPS)?
This includes _____ major parks and 331 ______________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________.
The most restricted public lands are 660 roadless areas that make up the
_____________ _________________________________.
Since the 1800s there has been controversy over how U.S. public lands should be used
because of the _________________________________ they contain.
Federal Public lands contain what?
Whose land-use ethic is the basis for most of the guiding principles held by most
conservation biologists, environmental economists, and many free-market economists?
Economists, developers, and resource extractors tend to view public lands in terms of
their _________________ in providing ____________, __________, and other resources
and their ability to increase short-term ____________ growth.
Some forests have not been disturbed by human activities for ________ __________
years, others have grown back after being _________, and some consist of planted
stands of a particular ________ species.
Forests with at least _____% tree cover occupy about ______% of the earth’s land
surface.
Forest managers and ecologists classify forests into three major types based on what?
____________________ are an uncut forest or regenerated forest that has not been
seriously disturbed by human activities or natural disasters for at least several hundred
years.
These forests are __________-_____________of biodiversity because they provide
ecological niches for a _______________of wildlife species.
What is second-growth forest?
What is another name for tree plantation?
What is the point of a tree plantation?
What is even-aged management?
What is uneven-aged management?
What is the first step in forest management?
What is selective cutting?
What is shelterwood cutting?
What is seed-tree cutting?
What is strip cutting?
Pages 203-212
_________________ is the temporary or permanent removal of large expanses of forest
for agriculture or other uses.
___________ ____________ have reduced the earth’s forest cover by 20-50% and
deforestation is continuing at a fairly _______ rate, except in most temperate forests in
North America and Europe.
____________ is the world’s biggest financial asset.
We can use forests more _____________ by including the economic value of their
ecological services, harvesting trees no faster than they are replenished, and protecting
old-growth and vulnerable areas.
Name 2 solutions to Sustainable Forestry.
Forests cover about _____ percent of the U.S. land area, provide habitats for more than
80% of the country’s wildlife species, and supply about 2/3 of the nation’s total
________ ________.
Many of the old growth forests that were cleared between 1620 and 1960 have
________________________________________.
Bill McKibben cited ______________________ in the United States as “the greatest
environmental story of the United States, and in some ways the whole world.”
___________________________ was the first country to set aside large areas of forest
in protected areas.
What are some ways to reduce the harmful impacts of tree diseases and of insects on
forests?
Three types of fires can affect forest ecosystems; surface fires, ____________________,
and _______________________.
Describe each type of forest fire:

Surface Fire

Crown Fire

Ground Fire
What are three strategies for reducing harm from fires to forest and people?
Under the Healthy Forests Initiative timber companies are allowed to cut down
__________________________________ trees in most national forest for 10 years in
return for ______________________________ smaller, more fire-prone trees and
underbrush.
Biologist think that this law will ________________ the chances of severe fires.
The two reasons for this are:


Some fire scientists think that some forest need to be ________________ to reduce
chance of catastrophic fires.
The controversy over U.S. National Forest is over how it should be managed…
___________________________________, their ecological ______________, recreation
or a ___________ of these uses.
Name two advantages and two disadvantages of logging U.S. National Forest (Figure 1116)




One way to reduce the need to harvest trees is to
_________________________________________.
The two sources of tree-free fibers are:
1.
2.
Large areas of tropical forest are being cut rapidly in parts of ____________________,
______________________ and Asia.
According to studies more than ________________ of the world’s species live in the
tropical rain forest.
Estimates of global tropical forest loss very from _____________ square kilometers to
______________ square kilometers per year.
The primary sources of tropical deforestations and degradation are:
_________________ is used for high blood pressure medication (Figure 11-17).
Loggers typically use ________________ ________________ to remove the best timber
(high grading)
The rapid spread of _____________ farming/ranching is the biggest threat to the
Amazon’s tropical forests.
What are the secondary causes of the destruction and degradation of tropical forests?
(Figure 11-18)
p. 213 -217
The ___________ is a broadleaf evergreen member of the ________________.
This remarkable tropical species, native to ______ & ______ is ideal for reforestation because it
can grow to maturity in only ______ years. It grows well in ____ soil in _________ lands such
as Africa providing __________, ____________, & __________.
It also has various natural pesticides; _________ from its leaves & seeds can ____ or kill more
than 200 insect species such as ________________, __________________, ____________,
_______________ & ________________.
Extracts from _____________ & leaves can fight _________, ________ &
___________________. Its leaves can relieve so many different ____________________; people
use the twigs to make ________________. The seeds to make _____________ & _______.
____________ caution against wide spread planting for it could take over & ___________ native
species because of its ___________ & resistance to _______.
Only __% of the park in the developing countries receives _________.
Local people, loggers, miners & wildlife poachers’ _______ unprotected parks in search for
________, ___________, & ________ products for daily survival.
Some national parks are too small too _____ to sustain many large animal species. Some receive
invasions by nonnative species that can ________ population.
National parks in the US face ________________.
The US national park system established in ____ has __ national parks. (Known as the crown
jewels of the country).
__________is one of the biggest problems of national parks; many visitors expect recreational
areas.
Service rangers spend an increasing amount of their time on _______________ &
_________________ instead of _____________ & ______________.
According to the national park service, air ________ affects scientific views in most national
parks.
Currently, concessionaries in national parks pay the ___________ and average of ___% of their
gross receipts in __________ fees.
About __% of the earth’s land areas has been protected strictly or partially in nature ________,
_______, ________________, ________ & other areas.
__% of earth’s land is reserved for us. __% is covered in ___, _____, or ______.
We have protected _% of earth’s terrestrial areas from potentially harmful activities.
Despite such widespread ____________, tiny Costa Rica is a superpower biodiversity, with an
estimated ________ plant & animal species.
In the mid-1970s, Costa Rica established a system of _________ & _____________ that by 2003
included about a quarter of its land—6% of it is reserved for indigenous people.
The country’s parks & reserves are consolidated into eight ___________ design to sustain about
80% of Costa Rica’s biodiversity.
Pages: 217-219
are usually the best way to protect biodiversity, but in some places
several well placed, medium sized, isolated reserves can do the job.
Establishing protected
between reserves can help support more
species and allow migration of vertebrates that need large ranges.
Biosphere
have an inner protected core surrounded by two buffer
zones that can be used by local people for sustainable extraction of resources.
The
contains an important ecosystem that the government legally
protects from all human activities except nondestructive research and mining.
A
surrounds and protects the core area. A
second
or
surrounds the inner buffer.
People with
can work together to develop adaptable plans for
managing and sustaining nature reserves.
One way to deal with uncertainties and conflicts is through
.
List the four steps of adaptive ecosystem management.
We can prevent or slow down losses of biodiversity by concentrating efforts on
protecting
where significant biodiversity is under immediate threat.
Hot spots also known as
are areas especially rich in plant and animal
species that are found nowhere else and are in great danger of extinction or serious
ecological disruption.
_____________ __ is land legally set aside in a large enough area to prevent or
minimize harm from human activities.
According to the
wilderness consists of areas of
undeveloped land affected primarily by forces of nature, where man is a visitor who
does not remain.
The U.S. Wilderness Society estimated that a wilderness area should contain at least
___________ square kilometers. (1,500 sq. miles)
Wilderness can be described as a __________________________ and an
__________________.
Only a ___________ percentage of the land area of the U.S. has been set aside as
wilderness.
Congress didn’t pass the Wilderness Act until ____________.
Americans have reserved __________ of the continental U.S. to be used as they see fit
and have protected only about __________ as wilderness.
p220-222

The environmental damage inflicted on nature by humans is partially reversible through
________.

Restoration: Trying to return a particular degraded habitat or __________ to a condition as
similar as possible to its natural state.

_________: Turn a degraded ecosystem back into a functional or useful ecosystem without
trying to restore it to its original condition.

Remediation: Cleaning up chemical contaminants from a site by physical or chemical
methods to protect human health and as a first step toward ____________ of a site for human
use.

_________: replacing a degraded ecosystem with another type of ecosystem.

Researchers have suggested five basic science principles for carrying out _______
restoration.

______ nature and natural processes and ideally let nature do the most of the work.

Recreate important ecological _____ that have been lost

Rely on pioneer species,______ ______, foundations species, and natural ecological
succession to facilitate restoration process.

Control or remove harmful ________ species

If necessary, reconnect small patches to form larger ones and create ______ where existing
patches are isolated.

Some analysts worry that environmental restoration could encourage continuing
environmental destruction and ________ by suggesting any ecological harm we do can be
undone.

Ecologists point out that preventing _______ damage in the first place is cheaper and more
efficient than any form ecological restoration.

_____ _____ is the site of one of the world’s largest ecological restoration projects.

Daniel Janzen’s vision is to make the nearly 40,000 people who live near the park and
essential part of the restoration of the degraded forest, a concept he calls _______ _______.
Pages 224-236
Humans wiped out the passenger pigeon species by
___________________________________, and _____ of the bird’s ____________,
and __________________ as forests were cleared to make room for ______and
_________.
1.
2.
What is a “stool pigeon”?
3.
The three levels of species extinction are? Explain each.
Biologists classify species heading toward biological extinction as either
______________ or ___________.
4.
5.
What is extinction spasm?
Biologists trying to catalog extinctions have three problems. First,
______________________
____________________________________________________. Second,
________________ __________________________________________. Third,
____________________________ __________________________________.
6.
What has become the world standard for listing all threatened species
throughout the world?
7.
The species-area relationship suggests on average a ____ loss of habitat causes
the extinction of about ____ of the species living in the habitat.
8.
According to researchers Edward O. Wilson and Stuart Primm, at a _____
extinction rate at least 20% of the worlds current animal and plant species could be
gone by ______ and ____ could vanish by the end of this century.
10. What is one reason biologists consider extinction rates of 0.1-1% to be more
conservative?
9.
Conservation biologists and ecologists say we should act now to prevent the
premature extinction of species because of their _______________________ based
on their usefulness to us in the form of economic and ecological services.
11.
12.
What do genetic engineers use genetic information for?
Wildlife tourism, or ___________________ generates at least
_________________ per year worldwide.
14. What two traits make bats vulnerable to extinction.
13.
Some people believe that each wild species also has _______________ or
______________ value based on its inherent right to exist and play its ecological
role regardless of its usefulness to us.
16. What are some basic causes of the endangerment and premature extinction of
wild species? (Figure 12-6)
17. According to the Nature Conservancy, the major types of habitat disturbance
threatening endangered species in the United States, in order of importance:
18. ___________________________ occurs when a large continuous area of habitat
is reduced in an area, and divided into smaller, more scattered and isolated
patches, also called “____________________.”
15.
Habitat fragmentation makes species more vulnerable to ____________,
___________________________, ____________, and catastrophic events.
Examples:
19.
____________________________ has been used to understand the effects of
fragmentation on species extinction and to develop ways to help prevent such
extinction.
20.
21.
Approximately ___ percent of the world’s _____ known species are declining.
22.
About ___ of every bird species is threatened with extinction.
___ of the the world’s 330 parrot species are threatened with extinction
because of habitat loss and being captured for the pet trade.
23.
24.
25.
26.
23 species of ________ face extinction.
Hunters kill about ____ million birds per year.
One billion birds are killed per year by flying into ______________.
__________, ____________________, and ____________ are all causes of
extinction for birds.
PAGES 237-249
27.

Removal of a species in an ecosystem is almost impossible so the best way to
limit the harmful impacts of nonnative species is to __________ them from being
introduced and becoming established.
 Prevention: the best way to ___________ threats from nonnative species
 List three ways to prevent threats from nonnative species
o
o
o

What are characteristics of successful invader species?

What are characteristics of ecosystems vulnerable to invader species?


Related problem: explosion of ___________ populations in suburban areas
The increased birth rates are due to _______________, which has created an
“all-you-can-eat” edge paradise for deer
 have not yet found a solution to the problem, must figure out ways to put them
on “birth control”
12.5

______________ wildlife is the third largest and most lucrative illegal crossborder smuggling activity

the number of tigers has shrunk from 100,00 to 7,500 due to habitat loss and
_____________ for fur and bones.

Illegal hunting has _____________ because it can earn anymore from $5,000 $100,000 (depending on what is being sold)

Indigenous people in West and Central Africa have sustainably hunted wildlife for
_____________ as a source of food for centuries.

Bushmeat trade is _____________ in Southeast Asia, the Caribbean, and Central
South America

List 4 reasons why killing wild animals for bushmeat has become more
widespread
o 1)
o 2)
o 3)
o 4)

Current depletion of bushmeat has ecological impacts…leading to
____________.
12.6

People try to ________ species that compete with them for food and game
animals

Killing predators that bother us or cause economic losses threatens some species
with _____________ extinction

Global legal and illegal trade in wild species for ______ is a very profitable
business.

More than_____ bird species, mostly parrots, are endangered or threatened
because of the wild bird trade.

Amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and ____________ are also being depleted
because of the pet trade.

Ex-poachers in Thailand are now making more money taking ____________ into
the forest than they did by poaching hornbills. They also protect these birds from
poachers.

Collecting _______________(such as orchids and cacti) kill large numbers of them
and endanger these species and others that depend on them.

____________ from human activities undermines habitats and lives of species.

____________________ threatens a number of species with extinction.

Global warming will alter the world’s _____________.

Species may not have enough time to adapt to the ________________ and will
die.

_____________ underminds all living species.

_______________ degrade the environment and kill species.

_______________ are especially deadly to honeybees, birds, and fish.
12-7 Protecting Wild Species: The Research and Legal Approach

_______________ help protect endangered and threatened species but
enforcement is difficult and punishment inadequate.

The 1975 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
protects ____ species from being commercially traded and restricts international trade
for 29,000 species that may become threatened.

Many countries are not _________________and still trade in animals.

___________________________________ binds governments to reverse the
global decline in biological biodiversity. The United States has not ratified this treaty.
There are no severe penalties or other enforcement mechanisms in place.

____________________ of 1900 prohibits transporting live or dead wild animals
(or their parts) across state borders without a federal permit.

The ___________________________________ identified and legally protects
endangered species in the U.S. and abroad.

Identification of endangered and threatened ______________________ is made
by the National Marine Fisheries Service, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is
responsible for identifying and listing all other endangered and threatened species.

A 2000 study by the Nature Conservancy found that _________of the U.S. species
are at risk of extinction, and 15% are at high risk.

______________________________________ are designed to reach a
compromise between interests of private land owners and endangered/threatened
species.

Efforts have been made to repeal/weaken the Endangered Species Act by:
Chapter 12: 12-8

The United States has set aside _______ federal refuges for wildlife, but many
refuges are suffering from environmental degradation.

More than 3/4 of the refuges are concentrated along major bird migration
corridors or flyways. They serve as vital __________________ for protecting millions of
migratory waterfowl s as the journey north and south each year to find food, suitable
climate, and other conditions necessary for reproduction.

About 1/5 of U.S. endangered and threatened species have habitats in the
__________ system.

Activities considered harmful to wildlife occur in nearly what percent of the
nation’s wildlife refuges?
o (i.e. too much hunting and fishing and use of powerboats and off-road vehicles can
take their toll on wildlife populations in heavily used refuges)

Establishing _______ banks and botanical gardens and using farms to raise
threatened species can help protect species from extinction, but these options lack
funding and storage space.

How do gene or seed banks preserve genetic information and endangered plant
species?

The worlds more than 100 seed banks have focused on __________ seeds of
approximately 100 plant species that provide us with food- with just 14 plants providing
about 90% of calories in our food.

Seed banks are expensive to operate and can be ___________ by accidents.

The world’s 1,600 ___________ gardens and arboretums containing living plants,
representing almost 1/3 of the world’s known plant species.

The botanical gardens have too little storage capacity and too little funding to
preserve most of the world’s ________ and _______________ plants.

Zoos and aquariums can help protect endangered animal species, but lack funding
and ______________.

What two techniques are used for preserving endangered terrestrial species?

Egg pulling involves ___________ wild eggs laid by critically endangered birds
species and then hatching them in zoos or research centers.

In ___________ breeding, some or all of the wild some or all of the wild
individuals of a critically endangered species are captured for breeding in captivity.

Name other techniques for increasing the populations of captive species:

The ultimate goal of captive breeding programs is to build up populations to a
level where they can be ________________ into the wild.

After more than two decades of captive breeding efforts, only a handful of
endangered species have been _____________ to the wild.

Lack of __________ and ____________ limits efforts to maintain populations of
endangered animal species in zoos and research centers.

The captive population of each species must number 100-500 individuals to avoid
_________________ through accident, disease, or loss of genetic diversity through
inbreeding.

Conservation biologists point out that what three things are not biologically or
economically feasible solutions for most of the world’s current endangered species?
12-9

What is Reconciliation Ecology?

Examples of Reconciliation Ecology:
- Safe Harbor Agreements
- _______________ Agreements that are part of the _________________
________________ Act
- Replacing _________________ yards with ______________ yards.
- Planting gardens on _____________