Download 1. Classical conditioning

Learning
• positive and relatively permanent change in
behavior”
• “It is continuous and a result of gaining new
experiences
1
Categories of behavioral learning
1. Classical conditioning (Pavlov’s experiment):
Before classical conditioning
- CS (Light) ---------- NO response
- US (Food) ---------- UR (salivation)
during classical conditioning :
- CS (Light) ---------UR (Salivation)
- US (Food) ---------After classical conditioning :
• CS (Light) --------- CR (Salivation)
2
2. Operant conditioning: (Skinner’s
experiment)
- Researcher prepared a box, with a bar inside
it, under the bar, there is food .
- Pressing the bar, give food
- A hungry rat inside the box: Occasionally,
the rat pressed the bar and some food falls
into the dish .
- The rat starts to press the bar again, and
more food was falling into the dish .
3
In this experiment there is No external
stimulus.
-The food reinforces bar pressing
-If no food present pressing the bar
decrease.
* In classical conditioning: animal is
passive, waits until the conditioned
stimulus is presented and followed by the
unconditioned stimulus.
* In operant conditioning: the animal is
active (no conditioned stimulus)
4
Reinforcement: or (reward):
"It is any event, whose occurrence increases
the probability that the behavior (response)
will be repeated.
-Positive reinforcement: the frequency of the
response increases because the response
causes increase arrival of satisfying stimulus
(food).
-Negative reinforcement: the frequency of the
response increases in removal of unpleasant
stimulus (electric shock).
5
• Punishment:
• "It is any event, whose occurrence
decreases the probability that the behavior
(response) will be repeated.
* E.g. when the rat press the bar an electric
shock is turn on.
6
Applications of operant conditioning
1- In psychotherapy: reinforcement of desired
behavior as: commitment to medication.
2- In academic fields: rewards after
achievements and punishment after failures in
education.
3- Many employee motivational programs use
reinforcement principles.
7
Cognition and Learning
• Learning without reinforcement:
- Cognitive psychologists maintain that much
of human learning occurs without
reinforcement (reward and punishment).
8
• Two types of cognitive learning:
1. latent learning:When an organism learns a new behavior but
doesn’t demonstrate this knowledge until an
incentive to do so, the learning is called latent
learning.
• Ex: You learn the way to an unfamiliar part
of town if someone tells you how to get
there.
9
2. Observational learning:
Organisms' gain a great deal of knowledge
through observing the behavior of others,
observations occur by looking, touching,
listening –etc. This model is called
observational learning.
10
• Psychologists developed forms of
psychotherapy based on observational
learning.
Ex. In phobia, clients can observe others
performs phobic activities safely, they can
develop confidence and imitate them
11
Social cognitive theory
Theory concentrates on the question (how and
why) personality styles are maintained over
time.
1. Schemas:
- Organized sets of knowledge about particular
domains of life. (coloring the way we perceive
events).
• Ex: person with “shyness schema” will view
the slightest mistake in social situation as
disaster.
12
2. Tasks:
-Tasks are based on the goals we set for
ourselves and the ideals for which we strive.
• Ex: student may focus on the task of
making friends to such an extent that he
neglects alternatives life tasks such as
making good grades.
13
3. Strategies:
- Depend on schemas and tasks.
- Combination of thoughts and actions of
anticipation planning, self-monitoring and
effort.
14
Critique of social cognitive theory
1- It neglects emotions as love, hate & sorrow
2. Focus on responses to specific social
situations.
3. Our thinking determine our actions. (but
sometimes behavior determines schemas).
15
Stages of Cognitive Development
“Piaget’s four stages”
1. Sensorimotor- (birth to 2 years):
- The child develops a sense of self as separate
from the environment and the concept
intentionally e.g. shaking a rattle.
2. Preoperational- (2 to 6 years):
- develops the ability to express self with language
- represents objects by images and wards
- begins to classify objects by single dimension
16
3. Concrete operations- (6 to 12 years):
- begins to apply logic to thinking.
- understands spatiality and reversibility
- begins to classify objects by several
dimensions.
17
4. Formal operations- (12 to ≥15 years:
- Develops logical thinking and reasoning,
and achieves cognitive maturity
- Concerned with future and ideological
problems.
*Piaget’s theory suggests that individuals
reach cognitive maturity by middle to late
adolescence.
18
Critique of Paget's theory:
1. Piaget’s theory is useful when working with
children: the nurse is aware of his or her level
of cognitive development.
2. Cognitive development is less rigid and
more individualized than this theory suggests.
19