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Chapter 10 Religion: Interacting with the Non-Human World 1 © David Eller 2009 Religion has received much anthropological attention, but the anthropological study of religion has also been difficult and controversial often focused on the strange and exotic aspects of religion often felt the need to distance itself from strange exotic religions often used the language of one religion (Christianity) to understand and judge others 2 © David Eller 2009 Religion is part of the cultural ontology of societies what kinds of beings or entities—non-human and super-human— exist what are their qualities or powers what is the correct human relationship with and behavior toward them Geertz called religion the realm of the “really real” 3 © David Eller 2009 Studying religion anthropologically means describing the full range of religions cross-culturally relating each religion holistically to its wider social context understanding each religion in its own terms: not judging other religions by the standards of one’s own, not treating religions as “true” or “false,” not applying the concepts and categories of one religion to another 4 © David Eller 2009 One of the key problems in studying religion anthropologically is developing a cross-cultural analytical language not all religions have terms or concepts like “god” or “sin” or “soul” or “heaven,” etc. when they do have such terms, the local meaning may be quite different (e.g. the Greek gods did not have the same qualities as the Christian god) 5 © David Eller 2009 Each religion has its own set of terms and concepts, which the anthropologist must learn, understand, and use in describing it Hinduism: karma, dharma, samsara, moksha Warlpiri: jukurrpa, kuruwarri, pirlirrpa Scientology: clear, engram, E-meter, thetan, isness 6 © David Eller 2009 There are many definitions of religion, inside and outside anthropology. Each definition to emphasize one aspect of religion E.B. Tylor’s minimal definition of religion: “belief in spiritual beings”—essentially cognitive, an attempt to understand uncanny experiences like dreams and visions 7 © David Eller 2009 Emile Durkheim defined religion in terms of sacred vs. profane and the establishment of a religious community: “a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set aside and forbidden—beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral community called a Church, all those who adhere to them” 8 © David Eller 2009 Clifford Geertz defined religion in term of symbols that motivate and guide us: “a system of symbols which act to establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic” 9 © David Eller 2009 An emerging view regards religion as not a single unified phenomenon at all but as a composite of different bits or modules Anthony Wallace: 13 behavioral elements or building blocks Scott Atran and Pascal Boyer: basic psychological and social capabilities and habits, especially the attribution of agency or mind/will/intelligence to non-humans 10 © David Eller 2009 Anthropologically, religion is the parts of culture that involve ideas, and the associated actions and objects and institutions, about nonhuman and often “super”-human being(s) and/or force(s) that enter into “social” relationships with humans Robin Horton: “In short, Religion can be looked upon as an extension of the field of people’s social relationships beyond the confines of purely human society” 11 © David Eller 2009 Anthropology is less interested in the truth or falseness of religion than in its diversity, its social construction, and its social function Religions can perform many functions, including fulfilling individual needs (Malinowski) and social needs (Radcliffe-Brown) 12 © David Eller 2009 The main functions of religion can be condensed to three: 1. Explanation of origins (including the universe, human life, and society) of specific phenomena or events 2. Control of humans of nature of non-human/super-human agents 13 © David Eller 2009 3. Legitimation of natural conditions (like pain in childbirth) of social relations and institutions (like kingship, class system, or heterosexual marriage Not why these facts exist, but why they should exist, why they are good and right and justified and legitimate The authority of natural and social facts comes from their superhuman author 14 © David Eller 2009 Types of Religious Systems In the next few slides, the author of your textbook, David Eller, makes the case that few, if any, religious systems are ‘purely’ one type or another, that most religious systems combine various components or building block. However, many Anthropologists, myself included, find that while many supernatural systems combine various elements, they tend to be predominantly of one type or another. So, a familiarity with the broad types of supernatural systems is necessary in order to understand how a given system may differ from an ‘ideal’ type. Dr. Freeman Types of Religious Systems Animism-souls or spirits (Dani) Animatism-impersonal spiritual force that infuses the universe (mana, “the force”-Tahiti) Theism-belief in named beings that create or control Monotheism-belief in a singular god (Islam, Judaism, Christianity) Polytheism-belief in many gods (Hinduism, Greek & Roman) Atheism-belief in powers not in beings (Naturalists) Agnosticism-supernatural exists but in what form? The Elements of Religion Rather than “types” of religions, there are recurring elements or building blocks or modules of religion The elements or modules can occur in any combination and orientation, defying simple typologies of religion (like animism vs. theism) 17 © David Eller 2009 Religious Entities/Agents All religions make reference to (“belief in”) one or more kind of religious or “spiritual” entity beings: “personal” entities, with personality or will or mind forces: “impersonal” entities, lacking personality or will or mind (1) In some cases, forces do have some personal qualities, and beings are not always fully realized persons 18 © David Eller 2009 Beings “souls” of living human spirits of dead ancestor spirits of natural being/object/phenomenon (animal, plant, lake, hill, sun, moon, wind, rain, death) sometimes called “animism” various monsters, ogres, and demons god(s) sometimes called “theism” 19 © David Eller 2009 Forces mana (in Polynesian cultures) chi (in Chinese culture) n/um (in Ju/hoansi culture) diyi (in Apache culture) karma (in Hindu culture) arguably, concepts like luck, fate, or destiny sometimes called “animatism” 20 © David Eller 2009 It is incorrect to think of animism or theism or animatism as distinct “kinds” of religion Any particular religion may have any combination of ancestor spirits, nature spirits, gods, impersonal forces, and other nonhuman/super-human beings at the same time—with various powers in various relationships Humans may become ancestors or gods or other beings, and vice versa 21 © David Eller 2009 (2) Human Specialists Religion is ideas or knowledge, but it is also power Some humans have more knowledge of or power over religious subjects and beings/forces than others Given religious explanations and control of various phenomena, human specialists may have various religious tasks to perform 22 © David Eller 2009 Common religious tasks include: diagnosis and healing of disease performance of religious rituals leadership in religious or other matters teaching and instruction discerning or interpreting the will of non-human/super-human agents helping other people or harming other people 23 © David Eller 2009 There are not rigid types of specialists based on absolute distinctions of function: a religion may divide a task across two or more specialists (e.g. one to diagnose illness, one to cure illness—even different specialists to cure different illnesses) a religion may combine two or more tasks in one specialist (e.g. one specialist may be both curer and ritual leader) 24 © David Eller 2009 Anthropology conventionally distinguishes between several main kinds of specialists: shaman priest sorcerer witch diviner/oracle prophet 25 © David Eller 2009 Witchcraft vs. Sorcery Your textbook does not draw as strong a distinction between the categories of ‘witch’ and ‘sorcerer’ as I would like. There is usually some confusion between the two, and I want to spell out a much more clear distinction. As Anthropologists generally understand it, there is a difference between ‘witches’ who are: Born as witches (that is, they are born with their power); Inherently malevolent (that is they always bring harm to their victims or community); And who may not even realize they are witches. Understood in that way, no society is ever comfortable with the idea that a witch lives among them. Witchcraft vs. Sorcery There are many Wiccans and Neopagans who practice a form of naturalistic religion (or magic) that is designed to use existing natural powers to influence the lives of the members of the group in positive ways. In Anthropological terms, they would be classified as sorcerers, not witches (even though they use the term witch and witchcraft to refer to themselves and their practices). Witchcraft vs. Sorcery In contrast, a sorcerer (who can be either a male or female) is an individual who chooses (or is ‘called’ in some way) to become a sorcerer. The sorcerer learns to use his or her power (typically different forms of magic), usually from a powerful mentor. A sorcerer is a valuable member of a community, because a sorcerer is often the first person a group turns to when they have need of powerful magic (healing, protection from harmful magic, etc.). However, a sorcerer can be an ambiguous figure precisely because, while they know powerful beneficial magic, they may also know powerful malevolent magic, so they may also be capable of working against the members of the community. (3) Religious Symbols and Objects Human and non-human/super-human agents operate with and through a number of immaterial (like words) and material media sacred places and spaces buildings (churches, mosques, stupas, etc.) images and icons clothing, costumes, masks, etc. altars bells, candles, books, crosses, stones, prayer wheels, and so on 29 © David Eller 2009 Many religious objects are symbols—storehouses of meaning However, members of religions do not always regard their objects as symbolic Dan Sperber asked the question, Why do we call something symbolic? Answer: because we cannot see the practical reason for it…even because we think it is “literally” false 30 © David Eller 2009 The historian of religion Mircea Eliade recognized that, for members, some objects are not symbols but hierophanies—actual appearances of, eruptions of, breakthroughs of the sacred dimension into the material dimension for Warlpiri, a jukurrpa tree or churinga board is not a symbol but a manifestation of spirits for traditional Catholics, the communion wafer is not a symbol of Jesus but the actual presence and body of Jesus 31 © David Eller 2009 (4) Religious Behavior: Ritual Religious ritual is a special case of ritual behavior in general formalized and routinized associated with particular occasions and relationships communicative but also effective—has some goal and/or seeks some response 32 © David Eller 2009 According to Skorupski, ritual behavior is an instance of “interaction code” behavior behavior designed to establish, maintain, and terminate a social interaction especially prevalent when the status differences between participants is great, when the stakes of interaction are high, and when the communication and response is uncertain 33 © David Eller 2009 Religious behavior is especially ritualized because the status differences between humans and non-humans/superhumans is especially great the stakes in religious communication are especially high the problems of communicative uncertainty are especially large (is the other party there? hearing? understanding? responding?) 34 © David Eller 2009 Types of religious rituals (Wallace 1966): Technical rituals—to achieve certain specific ends Therapeutic or anti-therapeutic rituals—to cure or cause illness and misfortune Ideological rituals—to express or achieve social goals Salvation rituals—to work changes in individuals, particularly at moments of personal crisis Revitalization rituals—to improve society 35 © David Eller 2009 According to Victor Turner, most rituals are intended to effect changes in the participants or the objects of ritual The “ritual process” is essentially a change or “passage” from one status to another child to adult single to married sick to well alive to dead 36 © David Eller 2009 Rites of passage begin with individuals in a particular status individual is removed from the status (often a symbolic death) individual enters a “liminal” state with ambiguous status or no status often indicated by silence, nakedness, ordeals and painful operations, or absence of social distinctions individual is re-introduced to society in a new status 37 © David Eller 2009 (5) Religious Language: Myth Myth is a narrative of the actions and events concerning nonhuman/super-human actors, or early humans or culture heroes Myth is “sacred history” Myth is often thought to explain things, like origins 38 © David Eller 2009 But Malinowski challenged the notion that myths are explanatory, or even symbolic: “Studied alive, myth…is not symbolic, but a direct expression of its subject matter; it is not an explanation in satisfaction of a scientific interest, but a narrative resurrection of a primeval reality, told in satisfaction of deep religious wants, moral cravings, social submissions, assertions, even practical requirements. Myth fulfills in primitive culture an indispensable function; it expresses, enhances, and codifies belief; it safeguards and enforces morality; it vouches for the efficiency of ritual and contains practical rules for the guidance of man. Myth is thus a vital ingredient of human civilization; it is not an idle tale, but a hard-worked active force; it is not an intellectual explanation or an artistic imagery, but a pragmatic charter of primitive faith and moral wisdom.” 39 © David Eller 2009 As a charter, myth makes social relations and institutions seem real (even “really real,” as Geertz said)—myth becomes a model or paradigm or constitution for how we should live Anthropologists notice that, when social relations and institutions change, the underlying myths often change to “explain” and justify the new arrangements 40 © David Eller 2009 Myth is not the only form of religious language, and religions do not necessarily “tell” myths like they tell stories myth may be chanted or sung or acted out other forms of religious language include prayer, spells, or special ritual words or phrases or entire languages (like Latin for traditional Christianity) religions may also use secrecy or silence for ritual effect 41 © David Eller 2009 The ideas or “meaning” or “content” of myth and other religious speech are not the only important aspects. Religious language is also performed: particular speakers and/or audiences rules for particular time of day or of year unique performance qualities like special vocabularies, voice qualities, metaphor, repetition, rhyme, rhythm, and standard openings or endings may require costume, movement, and dance 42 © David Eller 2009 R. R. Marett said that religion is not so much thought out as danced out Irving Goldman (2004) was discussing a mourning song with a Cubeo shaman “when the traditional dance leader rose from his chair to dance a few steps while illustrating [the] song. He turned to me and said, ‘It cannot be done this way. I cannot sing without dancing.’ Then after a long pause he said, ‘I cannot dance without wearing the mask’” 43 © David Eller 2009 Supplementary Slides Characterized by the Supernatural Types Anthropomorphic-human form (Christian God) Zoomorphic-animal form (Grandmother Spider) Naturalistic-features of the natural world (Sprites) Anthropopsychic-personality similar to humans Types of supernatural systems Animism-souls or spirits (Dani) Animatism-impersonal spiritual force that infuses the universe (mana, “the force”-Tahiti) Theism-belief in named beings that create or control Monotheism-belief in a singular god (Islam, Judaism, Christianity) Polytheism-belief in many gods (Hinduism, Greek & Roman) Atheism-belief in powers not in beings (Naturalists) Agnosticism-supernatural exists but in what form? Characterized by Ritual Rites of Passage-rites of public ceremony or ritual recognizing and marking a person’s transition from one group or status to another Separation -removed from status Liminality In between, ritually dangerous Reincorporation Returned with new status Death, Marriage, Graduation Characterized by Ritual Magic-produce a mechanical effect by supernatural means Malinowski & Trobriand Islanders-fishing Gmelch-Baseball Magic Witchcraft Witchcraft Practitioners Wiccans & neo-pagans Witchcraft accusations Keeping social control Salem late 1600’s Azande