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Review: Famous People in Psychology History & Approaches Charles Darwin: Natural Selection: overpopulation, competition for limited resources, survival of the fittest (only those with the best adaptations survive), and reproduction (passing of fit genes to the next generation) Wilhelm Wundt with student Edward Titchner: school of Structuralism (searching for the discrete ‘atoms’ that make up the mind), established the first psychological research lab, developed research method Introspection (trained participants to report detailed descriptions of their own conscious mental experiences) William James: Functionalist, influenced by the work of Darwin, interested in the function or purpose of behaviors, played a key role in establishing psychology in USA, authored the first psychology book, “The Principles of Psychology”, still widely read today. Mary Whiton Calkins: studied psychology under William James, denied a PhD at Harvard, served as the first elected female president of the APA. Margaret Floy Washburn: first American woman to receive a PhD in psychology (Cornell), best known for her work on animal behavior, wrote the book “The Animal Mind” John B. Watson: Father of Behaviorism, along with Rosalie Raynor. famous for the case of Little Albert, classical conditioning experiment with stimulus generalization Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis, emphasized the role of unconscious conflicts in determining behavior & psychological experiences. Dreams key to insight of unconscious motives Basis of Biological Behavior Paul Broca: area in lower left frontal lobe that is necessary for speech production Carl Wernicke: left hemisphere has an area for the interpretation of language Roger Sperry : proposed lateralization of the brain (left & right hemispheres have different functions); first to propose “spilt-brain” surgery to help epileptic patients. Michael Gazzaniga: furthered Sperry’s research; proposed that the two hemispheres communicate with each other Sensation and Perception Ernest Weber: Just Noticeable Difference (JND) and Weber’s Law – the size of the JND will vary depending on the strength of the original stimulus. Hubel and Weisel: Studies with monkeys to show that they had specific FEATURE DETECTORS to aid them in visual processing (some for lines, bards, edges, shapes, etc.) Development Jerome Kagan: infant's "temperament" is quite stable over time, in that certain behaviors in infancy are predictive of certain other behavior patterns in adolescence Jean Piaget – Proposed four stages of COGNITIVE development. (Remember the acronym Socks Pulled over Cold Feet to remember these in order.) Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete, and Formal Stages. Erik Erikson – Proposed eight stages of SOCIAL development (know these!!) Lawrence Kohlberg – Proposed three stages of MORAL development (all framed around the word conventional.) This theory was criticized as it only tested young children by framing hypothetical situations for them and their responses to these. It did not test cross-culturally and between the genders. Carol Gilligan – Studied gender differences in morality. Women are not inferior, just different. Males value accomplishments and women value relationships. 1 Konrad Lorentz – Imprinting studies. Showed how baby animals would follow the first object they saw after birth. Believed to be a built-in survival mechanism. Lev Vygotsky: cognitive development is continuous (opposite to Piaget); believed children learned through social interactions and mentors (parents, teachers) Learn cultural habit of the mind through internalization. Key term: Zone of Proximal Development Harry Harlow: Showed importance of physical touch over nourishment in infant monkeys. Mary Ainsworth :Secure infants have good bonds with mothers. Reverse is also true. Eleanor Gibson: The “visual cliff” experiment. Showed that depth perception cues are innate. Diana Baumbrind: research on parenting styles: permissive, authoritarian, authoritative, uninvolved. States of Consciousness Ernest Hilgard – Studies showing that a hypnotic trance includes a “hidden observer” suggesting that there is some subconscious control during hypnosis. Learning Ivan Pavlov: Famous for his classical conditioning experiments. Contiguity model (Pavlov’s dog) Robert Rescorla - Contingency model - Proposed that there is a conscious connections between the CS and the UCS in classical conditioning experiments. (A smoker is aware that a nausea-producing drug will affect his behavior) John Garcia: taste aversion; supports the evolutionary perspective that being biologically prepared to quickly associate nausea with food/drink is adaptive Edward Thorndike: Law of Effect – responses followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated; those responses that are followed by negative outcomes are less likely to be repeated. B. F. Skinner – Famous for the “Skinner Box” to demonstrate operant conditioning in low level animals. Formulated the principles of operant conditioning. Edward Tolman: experiments with rats and mazes found that rats made cognitive maps; learning involves acquisition and use of knowledge Wolfgang Kohler – Demonstrated use of “insight” in apes when they used sticks to reach a banana that was out of reach. Albert Bandura – “Bo-Bo Doll” Experiment to demonstrate how children imitate anti-social behavior. Cognition George Miller: short-term memory, noted for the magic number of 7 bits of information plus or minus 2 Herman Ebbinghouse: forgetting curve, overlearning effect Elizabth Loftus – “misinformation effect” (confabulation) shown in memory studies. Noam Chomsky: children possess an innate capacity to learn , inborn language acquisition device Motivation and Emotion Abraham Maslow: hierarch of needs, must satisfy each level before you can move onto the next James and Lange – Physical before cognitive when appraising an emotional situation. 2 Cannon and Bard – Emotions and cognitive appraisal at the same time. Schachter-Singer Experiment – showed that emotions have both a physical and a cognitive component. Hans Selye – General Adaptation Syndrome (stress responses) Alfred Kinsey: pioneering scientific research on human sexuality Masters and Johnson: human sexuality researchers, 4 stages of sexual response Testing and Individual Differences Francis Galton: developed the statistical concept of CORRELATION and was the first to demonstrate that the ‘normal distribution’ could be applied to intelligence Charles Spearnman: proposed that intelligence is based on one underlying factor “g” Alfred Binet: invented the first standardized intelligence test, made an important distinction between the child’s mental and chronological age. Lewis Terman: inventor of the Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale in America; Modern IQ formula. Mental age/chronological age x 100. Howard Gardner: theory of multiple intelligences Robert Sternberg: Triarchic theory of intelligence; analytic, creative & practical David Wechsler - Modern IQ tests with specialized subtests and use of factor analysis. Personality Sigmund Freud: id, ego, super ego Alfred Adler: inferiority complex Carl Jung: collective consciousness Carl Rogers: humanist, self-concept was the cornerstone of personality, believed that healthy individuals are motivated to achieve their full potential (self-actualize) Paul Costa & Robert McCrae: Five Factor Model of Personality (CANOE or OCEAN) openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, & neuroticism. Treatment of Abnormal Behaviors Dorothea Dix: mental health reformer; first to set up; enabled legislation to set up the first generation of American mental institutions Sigmund Freud: free association, manifest & latent content of dreams, defense mechanisms Albert Ellis: Rational Emotive Therapy (REBT) Aaron Beck: cognitive therapy; Cognitive Triad Theory used to treat depression Carl Rogers: humanist, client centered therapy Mary Cover Jones: first to apply behaviorism techniques to therapy; often referred to as the mother of behavior therapy. 3 Joseph Wolpe: developed desensitization techniques Martin Seligman – “Learned Helplessness Experiment” with dogs. Showed the external locus effect in animals (generalized to depression with humans) Social Psychology Leon Festinger: cognitive dissonance Philip Zimbardo: famous Stanford Prison experiment Solomon Ashe: conformity study – used confederates to see if participants would conform to “line-test” answers even when they were sure they were wrong. Stanley Milgram: obedience study with electric shocks (power of an authority figure) Muzafer Sherif : Cooperation among divisive groups when they had subordinate (shared) goals. 4